Extended Classic: “Are You Out of Your Mind?” with Oliver Sacks

Join us for Neil deGrasse Tyson’s original interview with his recently departed friend Oliver Sacks, now extended with exclusive, never-before-heard content. Also featuring guest Cara Santa Maria and co-host Chuck Nice.

Speaker names marked ? are inferred from speaking time and the show’s known hosts — they are not voice-verified.

• 0:01Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Welcome to StarTalk. Your place in the universe where science and pop culture collide. StarTalk begins right now.

• 0:16Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  In light of the recent passing of our dear friend and celebrated neurologist Oliver Sacks, we at StarTalk decided to resurrect this episode featuring my interview with him at his home in New York City. When I think of Oliver, he was kind of like a fireside scientist. Someone who would go out, make discoveries, do research in the lab, and come back and tell you stories about it. And every story he told was interesting. He's kind of like the fun uncle you wish you had. Everything was interesting, and I think it's because he was at the juxtaposition of mind, body, and soul.

• 0:57Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Not only that, we had a shared interest in the periodic table of elements. All the stories behind how each element was discovered and where they were discovered and whether they were poisonous, or gaseous, or liquid. I'll not soon forget the short moments we had together.

• 1:16Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Welcome back to StarTalk. I'm Neil deGrasse Tyson, your personal astrophysicist. This week, we're talking about the brain. And I had to bring in Chuck Nice for that. Chuck, welcome back to StarTalk.

• 1:27Chuck Nice?

  Hey Neil, what's happening?

• 1:28Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Can't get enough of you, man.

• 1:29Chuck Nice?

  Hey, I don't blame you, man.

• 1:31Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  We brought you in for the Super Bowl show and for the brain show. What's left?

• 1:36Chuck Nice?

  Actually, two of my favorite things in the world. I find the brain to be one of the most fascinating studies that anyone can undertake.

• 1:43Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That and football. The brain gets bashed in football.

• 1:46Chuck Nice?

  There you go.

• 1:47Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Totally hooked up for that.

• 1:48Chuck Nice?

  Exactly.

• 1:49Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So, it's about the brain, because the brain is everything, right?

• 1:52Chuck Nice?

  I think so, yeah.

• 1:54Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  And we try to define what separates us from other animals.

• 1:58Chuck Nice?

  Right.

• 1:59Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  And it's language, it's abstract reasoning, we do art and philosophy and music and science and...

• 2:06Chuck Nice?

  Science!

• 2:08Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  And so, we try to sort of say that we are apart from the animals because our brain can accomplish all that. Actually, I think some other animals are doing calculus on the side.

• 2:17Chuck Nice?

  You think so?

• 2:17Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  I think so.

• 2:18Chuck Nice?

  What animal would be able to do calculus? If you could pick one?

• 2:21Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  If I could pick, I'm, uh, dolphins.

• 2:22Chuck Nice?

  Dolphins, probably.

• 2:23Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  You know, they, give them a pen, if they could ever use it, they would, they would show us what's really going on. One of my favorite memories is of, uh, one of, it was a Gary Larson comic, where the, the farm animals?

• 2:32Chuck Nice?

  Right.

• 2:32Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  And they're just talking to each other. The, the farmer is not there.

• 2:36Chuck Nice?

  Right.

• 2:36Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  The chicken is talking to the horse, is talking to the cow, and the chicken says, "But if you take the mass and divide it by the square root of the speed of light, then you get the same answer."

• 2:45Chuck Nice?

  Right.

• 2:46Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  But the other, and the horse answered, "Well, you're missing the basic premise of my theory." And then someone else says, "Farmer, cluck, cluck, cluck, move." So for all we know, this is what's really going on. But you know, neither you nor I are an expert on the brain, and we had to reach out into the ether and find who could help us do this.

• 3:02Chuck Nice?

  Cool.

• 3:03Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  And so, we found, we found Cara Santa Maria. Cara, welcome to StarTalk Radio.

• 3:09Speaker 02

  Thanks.

• 3:10Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Yeah, so you're an expert on the brain and brain function, and you've taught it before. Did we call you a neuroscience educator? What, what's the best title we can use for you?

• 3:19Speaker 02

  Well, I've taught, I've taught in psychology and biology. I guess you could call me an educator, student of the neurosciences.

• 3:24Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So aren't we all? Cause who knows it all? Nobody knows it all. So everybody's a student, even those who say they're not.

• 3:29Speaker 02

  That's true.

• 3:29Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Who profess to say they know it all.

• 3:31Speaker 02

  That's true.

• 3:32Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  They don't know jack.

• 3:33Speaker 02

  No. We, you never really feel like you know much, I think, when you're studying these things. You always kind of look back on what you've accomplished and say, "Really, am I just a hack here? How much of this did I really gather? There's so much more."

• 3:45Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Well, there's the stuff to actually learn that we know, and then there's the stuff beyond that that no one has even figured out yet.

• 3:50Speaker 02

  Exactly. There's a lot of that in neuroscience.

• 3:52Chuck Nice?

  Right.

• 3:52Speaker 02

  And, and astrophysics. I think those are two very big frontiers.

• 3:55Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  They are, and one is the inner and one is the outer space. Yes, indeed. And so, what I wondered, so you taught where? In, in New York, if I remember correctly, from your resume?

• 4:03Speaker 02

  I was in New York for about a year, um, and before that, I was in Texas for many years.

• 4:06Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  In Texas? And what, what do you call home?

• 4:08Speaker 02

  Now I'm in LA.

• 4:10Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  In LA?

• 4:11Speaker 02

  Yeah, I'm in LA.

• 4:11Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  No, no, I mean, where were you, where, where are your roots?

• 4:13Speaker 02

  My roots are in Texas.

• 4:14Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  In Texas.

• 4:15Speaker 02

  I'm definitely a Texas girl.

• 4:15Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Transplant, okay.

• 4:16Speaker 02

  Yeah.

• 4:17Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Okay, well, welcome to StarTalk Radio.

• 4:19Speaker 02

  Thank you.

• 4:19Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Cause we're gonna be picking your brain and try to leave you with some left to, to do your work.

• 4:24Chuck Nice?

  Right. As the non-scientists in the room, may I point out to our listeners two things. One, Cara is hot as hell.

• 4:33Chuck Nice?

  That's number one. Number two, she looks about 19. So those are two things you want to keep in mind when you hear the knowledge drop from her lips.

• 4:44Speaker 02

  Thank you.

• 4:45Chuck Nice?

  That she is hot and, and looks like she's 19.

• 4:49Speaker 02

  I'm not 19, by the way.

• 4:50Chuck Nice?

  Well, of course.

• 4:51Speaker 02

  Not 19.

• 4:52Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Chuck, why did you pick that age in particular?

• 4:54Chuck Nice?

  Because it's legal.

• 4:55Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That's exactly what I thought, Chuck. There it was.

• 5:00Chuck Nice?

  There's no lying in me, Neil.

• 5:03Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That's why we love you, Chuck. So Kara, if you were to describe what your particular expertise about the brain is, what would you say?

• 5:09Speaker 02

  I think that's still evolving. I think my interest was in brain damage, has been in brain damage. That's kind of what I want to continue to study.

• 5:17Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That's where you learn, because you can't go in and poke somebody's brain and find out what happened. You gotta wait for stuff to happen accidentally.

• 5:22Speaker 02

  Yeah, I mean, you can do models with animals, and I've done some of that.

• 5:25Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Non-human animals.

• 5:26Speaker 02

  Non-human animals, exactly.

• 5:27Chuck Nice?

  Right. Not just guys that play for the Lakers.

• 5:31Speaker 02

  But you do, you have to wait until something happens, and sometimes you have to wait until autopsy, or at least until you can get good imaging to see what actually did happen to the person.

• 5:39Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Right, and so a particular injury, my damage of a certain part of the brain that you'd never knew had a particular function.

• 5:44Speaker 02

  Yeah.

• 5:45Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  And then a person behaves crazy, crazier than they might have behaved before, and then you've just nailed the spot of the brain for what, for causes and effect, right?

• 5:52Speaker 02

  And, and brain damage for, you know, for a lot of people, it's like fingerprints. You want to say that we have classified particular areas that do particular things, and you damage this area and you have this effect, but the truth is, nobody has the same brain damage.

• 6:03Chuck Nice?

  Right.

• 6:04Speaker 02

  Nobody.

• 6:04Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  As each other.

• 6:05Speaker 02

  It's a very organic thing.

• 6:06Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Right, okay.

• 6:06Speaker 02

  You could damage the same area and have a totally different outcome. Yeah.

• 6:10Chuck Nice?

  And is that just because each individual brain has that particular type of makeup? I mean, the makeup of our brain is that particular?

• 6:17Speaker 02

  Well, it's, it's, it's similar brain to brain, but it's, it's very rare that only a very specialized region of the brain would be damaged anyway. You're gonna have other effects.

• 6:24Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That brings me to ask, because how many, we've got 100 billion nerve cells, I mean, brain cells?

• 6:29Speaker 02

  Just the neurons, yeah.

• 6:30Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Just the neurons. I love saying 100 billion, so let's say that together.

• 6:34Chuck Nice?

  100 billion.

• 6:36Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Very Carl Sagan. Take out the billion out there in that low voice.

• 6:39Speaker 02

  I like Sagan.

• 6:40Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Sagan, Carl Sagan, yeah. Saganomics. And so 100 billion nerve cells and, and brain cells, and we typically, the naive thought about the brain is that it stores information like a file cabinet, and you go and retrieve it. But recently, we've been learning it's much more complex than that, right? In terms of the storage of information and retrieval, is that right?

• 6:59Speaker 02

  Well, we... I think we used to think that we could just learn discrete packets of information. You just see something in the world, or you experience something through your senses, and then it goes to a certain part of your brain, and it just lives there until you want to pull it back out.

• 7:12Chuck Nice?

  Right.

• 7:12Speaker 02

  Like a file, like you said. But really, a lot of it is about connections. It's all about taking something in, connecting it to something you already knew.

• 7:21Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Like Facebook.

• 7:22Speaker 02

  Exactly. It's a web. It's like a social network.

• 7:26Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  A social network. A neural network.

• 7:28Speaker 02

  A neural network.

• 7:29Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Neural net.

• 7:30Chuck Nice?

  Can I defriend certain parts of my brain?

• 7:33Speaker 02

  If you're drinking enough.

• 7:34Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Okay. We'll get back to that.

• 7:36Chuck Nice?

  Okay.

• 7:38Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  How to defriend part of your memory.

• 7:39Chuck Nice?

  It's cool.

• 7:40Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Now Chuck, we put you on assignment earlier.

• 7:42Chuck Nice?

  Yes, you did.

• 7:43Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  And where I work, I am at the American Museum of Natural History here in New York City. I run the universe part of the museum, which includes...

• 7:50Chuck Nice?

  Which, by the way, is so cool. If you're ever in New York, you gotta go there.

• 7:52Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Oh, thanks for the commercials.

• 7:53Chuck Nice?

  Seriously.

• 7:54Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So I run the Hayden Planetarium, but now we, the museum, has an exhibit on the brain.

• 7:58Chuck Nice?

  Yes.

• 7:58Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  And I actually had not had a chance to view it, but we sent you so you could report back to StarTalk Radio.

• 8:05Chuck Nice?

  Right.

• 8:06Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  On what you found and what others found.

• 8:08Chuck Nice?

  Yes.

• 8:08Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  We, we made the mistake, I think, of giving Chuck a microphone.

• 8:11Chuck Nice?

  Yeah. So... I'll tell you the irony of this whole piece. It's the brainless going to a brain exhibit.

• 8:18Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  All right. Let's see what Chuck tells us. From the museum, live on Locat... well, he were... it's pre-taped.

• 8:24Chuck Nice?

  I was live on vacation.

• 8:26Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  He was live on vacation. Check him out.

• 8:29Chuck Nice?

  What is your favorite part of the brain?

• 8:32Speaker 03

  The stuff in the brain.

• 8:34Chuck Nice?

  The stuff in the brain. That's what I need more of. I need more stuff in my brain, because my brain is kinda empty.

• 8:41Speaker 03

  Was it empty?

• 8:42Chuck Nice?

  Listen, wait. Rattle my head. Look at that. Blink, blink, blink. You hear that?

• 8:45Speaker 03

  Yeah, what's that mean?

• 8:46Chuck Nice?

  Yeah, that's kinda nothing rolling around in my head.

• 8:52Speaker 04

  I'm actually a school psychologist.

• 8:53Chuck Nice?

  Really? So now, as a psychologist, do you find that people's experiences and environment, or their brain, causes them to have psychological problems?

• 9:03Speaker 04

  No, experiential learning and environmental learning have an impact, I believe, on brain development and the memories that you retain.

• 9:11Chuck Nice?

  So, how do you explain my mother telling me that something's wrong with me because I ain't right in the head?

• 9:18Speaker 04

  You're trying to get a free session.

• 9:22Speaker 04

  Sorry.

• 9:22Chuck Nice?

  No dice? Help me, Pamela!

• 9:24Speaker 04

  I'm on vacation.

• 9:28Chuck Nice?

  Did you learn anything that just totally wowed you?

• 9:32Speaker 05

  The fact that your brain tells you everything, it makes everything in your body go.

• 9:37Chuck Nice?

  Everything. Even the things that you take for granted. Like, you just blinked. I saw you blinked. I saw you blink there again. Your brain told you to do that, right?

• 9:45Speaker 05

  Yep.

• 9:46Chuck Nice?

  Do you know why I'm blinking right now? I'm afraid you might hit me.

• 9:51Speaker 05

  I won't do that.

• 9:52Chuck Nice?

  Thank you.

• 9:53Speaker 05

  I'll tell my brain not to do that.

• 9:57Chuck Nice?

  As a neurobiologist, I'm interested to know what your favorite part of the brain would be.

• 10:02Speaker 06

  Well, right now, at my age, the hippocampus. How's that?

• 10:06Chuck Nice?

  Ah, okay. That would be because the hippocampus is responsible for what? Memory and...

• 10:10Speaker 06

  Yes, yes.

• 10:12Chuck Nice?

  You have to use your brain in order to keep it going. So the brain is like a muscle. You gotta use it? You have to exercise it. Use it or lose it.

• 10:23Chuck Nice?

  What was the thing that most impressed you about your own brain that you found out in the exhibit?

• 10:28Speaker 07

  I think in relation to short and long-term memory, that it's sleep that actually transfers memories from short-term to long-term.

• 10:34Chuck Nice?

  So, you look well-rested.

• 10:37Speaker 07

  No, I'm not. I'm jet-lagged.

• 10:38Chuck Nice?

  Are you really?

• 10:39Speaker 07

  Yeah, I am.

• 10:39Chuck Nice?

  Are you from Australia?

• 10:40Speaker 07

  I am.

• 10:41Chuck Nice?

  So you've had a long flight.

• 10:42Speaker 07

  Yeah.

• 10:43Chuck Nice?

  And did you sleep on that flight?

• 10:44Speaker 07

  Only a very little bit.

• 10:46Chuck Nice?

  So was there anything else that really impressed you? Something you never thought you'd know about your brain that you found out?

• 10:51Speaker 07

  Uh, no, I can't remember anything else.

• 10:53Chuck Nice?

  And there you have it. The short-term, long-term, you need some sleep.

• 10:56Speaker 07

  I need some sleep.

• 10:58Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Chuck, just harassing visitors to the Hayden, American Museum of Hayden, no, actually, the brain exhibit at the American Museum of Natural History.

• 11:07Chuck Nice?

  Yeah.

• 11:07Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So, in there, we heard about the hippocampus. So Kara, tell us about the hippocampus.

• 11:12Speaker 02

  All about the hippocampus.

• 11:14Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Yeah, in one minute about.

• 11:15Speaker 02

  I remember first learning about the hippocampus and then teaching my students about the hippocampus and I would imagine a hippopotamus walking through my college campus, remembering how to get to class. I don't know, that helped me at the time. Yeah, it's a deeper structure of the brain. It's kind of underneath the cortex and it's involved in memory. And it used to be the case, kind of after a really famous patient, patient HM, had his hippocampus damaged when he had a surgery for epilepsy, scientists all thought, well, this must be the seat of memory in the brain. This is the only place where memories.

• 11:51Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Once again, because of some accident, then they know this. Yeah, or they believe it.

• 11:55Speaker 02

  They could look at his brain and say, well, he's kind of missing this area and he can't remember things now. He can't encode new memories. What we've found out more recently is that memory is very ubiquitous in the brain. It's in many parts of the cortex. And like we said before, it-

• 12:09Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  The memory of a single thing can be spread around.

• 12:11Speaker 02

  It can, it can.

• 12:12Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Not just different things in different places.

• 12:13Speaker 02

  Definitely different things. But the memory of a single thing can too, because we make associations, you know, smells help us.

• 12:19Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Totally. Man, Chuck, I smell something and I said, man, I remember that 19, you know, whatever, you know?

• 12:25Chuck Nice?

  You know, you're right. I mean, I had, I was home today at my parents and my mother made some food and it took me back to being in that home when I was like 11 years old.

• 12:33Speaker 02

  Yeah, that's one of the strongest triggers, actually, because it's a very old part of the brain.

• 12:37Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So comfort food is not just that it is, but that it has a smell?

• 12:40Chuck Nice?

  Right. And that it brings comfort. But yeah, that makes sense.

• 12:43Speaker 02

  Definitely. Yeah, and food, flavor. Flavor is smell.

• 12:46Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  The meatloaf is waiting for you outside. Smell, taste, all this must plug into the brain.

• 12:51Speaker 02

  Yeah, but then that plugs into the brain and it helps us recall memories and encode memories. But really, the hippocampus, we found, is more of kind of a- A waystation. It's the place where memories can kind of first be encoded and then spread out to other parts of the cortex for storage.

• 13:04Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So this sounds like there's a risk of misremembering something if it's got to store one place first and then other places later. But we get back to that in another segment. But before we even get there, do you compare the human brain with other brains?

• 13:15Speaker 02

  Yeah.

• 13:16Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Because I've been reading about this and I learned that the octopus, which is kind of an extraordinary creature for starters, can each limb, each of the eight limbs, kind of can operate autonomously without reference to the brain. This is what I learned about.

• 13:29Speaker 02

  Like there's ganglia, like mini-brains?

• 13:32Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Yeah, mini-brains that can make their own kind of decisions.

• 13:34Speaker 02

  Pretty cool.

• 13:35Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  This is cool and scary.

• 13:36Chuck Nice?

  That's awesome.

• 13:37Speaker 02

  You know how dolphins sleep?

• 13:39Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  I'd never ask.

• 13:41Speaker 02

  Since they have to be underwater, but they're mammals, they have to breathe.

• 13:43Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Oh, yeah, yeah, yeah.

• 13:44Speaker 02

  It's conscious breathing. So they sleep by one hemisphere going to sleep at a time while the other remains alert.

• 13:48Chuck Nice?

  Wow. So they can sleep and still swim to the surface and breathe.

• 13:52Speaker 02

  Yeah.

• 13:53Chuck Nice?

  But they're sleeping.

• 13:54Speaker 02

  Half of their brain is asleep.

• 13:55Chuck Nice?

  So basically, they sleepwalk.

• 13:56Speaker 02

  They do.

• 13:57Chuck Nice?

  Or sleepswim.

• 13:58Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Sleepswim.

• 13:59Chuck Nice?

  They sleepswim.

• 14:00Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Right. And how about whales?

• 14:02Speaker 02

  I don't know.

• 14:03Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  I didn't know that. So they can just shut, they got a little switch and just switch in left and right.

• 14:06Speaker 02

  Just like we have a switch, well, we have a switch for our whole brain to go to sleep.

• 14:08Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  It'd be interesting to see what different behaviors they're capable of as one half turns off and the other turns on.

• 14:13Speaker 02

  Definitely.

• 14:14Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Because we have specialization of our brain halves, don't we? Or is that just a fiction from the past?

• 14:19Speaker 02

  No, we do. We definitely have specialization.

• 14:21Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Right.

• 14:22Speaker 02

  In different hemispheres.

• 14:23Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That's always, and other, you know, and sort of creatures that are much smaller, that I learned about flatworms, that they don't even have a brain.

• 14:28Chuck Nice?

  Oh, thank God, because you have scared me.

• 14:30Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Oh, you're wondering if flatworms are doing calculus on the side? And where does Chuck fit into this evolutionary?

• 14:36Chuck Nice?

  Exactly.

• 14:38Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Well, we're rounding down our first segment. When we get back, my interview with neuroscientist Oliver Sacks.

• 15:14Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  We're back. Chuck Nice, thanks for being on StarTalk. Let me reintroduce our guest today. In from Los Angeles, this is Cara Santa Maria.

• 15:23Speaker 02

  Hello.

• 15:23Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Hello. Did I pronounce your name right, Cara?

• 15:25Speaker 02

  Yes, you did.

• 15:26Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Thank you.

• 15:26Speaker 02

  Thank you for that.

• 15:27Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Cara Santa Maria.

• 15:28Speaker 02

  Santa Maria.

• 15:28Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Right. Wasn't that one of the Columbus chips?

• 15:31Speaker 02

  Yes, it was.

• 15:32Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  It was. Good.

• 15:32Speaker 02

  Many a nickname, growing up.

• 15:34Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Yeah.

• 15:34Speaker 02

  Nina Pinta.

• 15:35Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  And so, we promised you before the break that we would take you to an interview that I conducted with Oliver Sacks. He's probably the world's best-known neuroscientist. And if you haven't heard of him, you may have known the movie Awakenings. In fact, that movie was about him. That was about him. Robin Williams was playing him.

• 15:56Chuck Nice?

  Okay, I was gonna say, I'm guessing he's not the Robert De Niro character.

• 16:00Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  [laughing]

• 16:01Chuck Nice?

  Because that would be truly extraordinary.

• 16:03Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Let me double-check IMDb to make sure. But yeah, Robin Williams portrayed him in that film. It was semi-autobiographical. I think it was done up a little for the movies as well. But basically, it was a story of his life, and, you know, breaking in as a neuroscientist. His latest book, The Mind's Eye, is about how our brain helps to understand what the eyes see. Because your eyes are the organ unto themselves. They just gotta hand it over to the brain, then the brain has to make sense of it. So this is what's somebody needed to write a book on that. And there's gonna be a movie released. Well, there wasn't. It was The Music Never Stopped. Did that movie come out yet?

• 16:40Speaker 02

  I think it already did.

• 16:41Chuck Nice?

  I think it did. It did come out.

• 16:42Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That's based on one of his essays called "The Last Hippie," which was published in his book "An Anthropologist on Mars."

• 16:48Chuck Nice?

  I love that title, man.

• 16:49Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So apparently, he's been places, perhaps including Mars. I don't know.

• 16:53Speaker 02

  [laughing]

• 16:55Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So that's Oliver Sacks. And in our first clip, he talks about the things that define your identity and your personality. And he describes what role the electrical currents in your brain might play in determining that, but how a super-duper electrical current from outside your brain can really mess with it.

• 17:15Chuck Nice?

  Oh, man. I think that's what they wanted to do to me.

• 17:19Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That's the part of your life we'll get to at another show, Chuck. Let's see where, let's, let's just see where Oliver Sacks takes us.

• 17:28Speaker 08

  A colleague whom I describe in my book Musicophilia, he is a surgeon here in New York, and in 1994, through a freak accident, he was struck by lightning. And he had a cardiac arrest, he was dead for half a minute, or certainly his brain did not get enough blood or oxygen at that time. He had a sort of strange experience. He was conscious of being flung back many feet by the thunderbolt, by the lightning which hit him, and then he felt he was floating forward, and he looked down, and that he saw his own body with people around him. And he said, "Bleep, I'm dead." But then he seemed to sort of move on, and then a sense of ecstasy came on him, and

• 18:13Speaker 08

  he saw a bluish-white light, and he felt the most wonderful thing in the world was about to happen. And then he regained full consciousness to find someone doing CPR on him. But about three weeks after this, he had a strange emotional and musical change. This man, who had never been interested in music, developed a sudden passion for classical music, first to hear it, and then to play it, and then he wanted to compose it. And this also went with a mystical feeling. He felt that God had sent the thunderbolt, but had also arranged for him to be resuscitated, and that he now had a mission to bring music to the world.

• 18:56Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Was he religious before this?

• 18:58Speaker 08

  Not really. I think there were some seeds of religion, but these flared up with the experience, either with the psychological shock of being almost killed, and who knows what neurological changes might have happened as he was electrocuted, and when his brain didn't have enough blood.

• 19:15Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  The brain being a organ of electrical current, right? That's what goes on in the brain.

• 19:19Speaker 08

  Yes, absolutely. There's this chemistry and electricity, and that's it. And somehow from this, there comes thought, imagination, spirit, the idea of God, and everything else. Well, anyhow, this man will put a supernatural explanation on this. However, he is not ignorant scientifically. In fact, he has a PhD in neuroscience as well. As a neurologist, it was up to me to put things in more neurological terms, but without in any way upsetting him, devaluing his experience. And I said, you know, I'm sure this is what you experience and what you believe, but will you allow that something might have happened inside you?

• 19:59Speaker 08

  For example, it might supernatural intervention make use of existing neurological structures? And he said, yeah. Okay. And that point where I suggested that the two were not wholly incongruous, he said he would be prepared to have subtle forms of brain imagery or whatever, to see whether we might be able to find the parts of his brain which had perhaps been reorganized somewhat, pushing him towards religion and towards music.

• 20:32Chuck Nice?

  Wow.

• 20:33Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Yeah.

• 20:33Chuck Nice?

  Okay, I got one thing to ask about that whole clip.

• 20:36Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  What's that?

• 20:36Chuck Nice?

  Was that a beep?

• 20:37Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Yeah, it was StarTalk's first beep, yes.

• 20:40Chuck Nice?

  Leave it to a neuroscientist to get the first beep on the show.

• 20:45Speaker 02

  We're cool like that.

• 20:46Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  You're cool like that. That was the first beep. And we had to beep what his quote of someone else, it's not even him, right? So that's what that was. So that's interesting. So what confidence this person must have to believe that God would strike him dead with lightning, but then rely on someone to resuscitate him so that he would have these magical musical powers and interest?

• 21:05Chuck Nice?

  You know, I'm just gonna say and not to ever devalue someone's religious beliefs or inclinations. You know, normally when God strikes you, he's kinda pissed. I'm just saying.

• 21:17Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  He hit you with a bolt of lightning?

• 21:18Chuck Nice?

  He didn't hit Moses with a bolt of lightning and then say, "I want you to take these ten rules down to the people." No, he said, "Moses, come on up here. I wanna talk to you."

• 21:26Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Let's talk, yeah, let's talk.

• 21:28Chuck Nice?

  When God strikes you, there might be a little problem here with God.

• 21:31Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That you haven't really quite figured out yet.

• 21:34Chuck Nice?

  Right.

• 21:35Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So, so, so, Carrot, so, so we, our identity, it looks like it can be altered by just sort of a an electrical shock. Is that, do you do experiments with that?

• 21:43Speaker 02

  It can be altered by a lot of things. You've, you've heard of Phineas Gage? No?

• 21:46Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  No.

• 21:47Speaker 02

  Phineas Gage?

• 21:48Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  No, no, sorry.

• 21:49Speaker 02

  A railroad worker.

• 21:50Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Certainly, if he's a railroad worker. Triply not, okay?

• 21:54Speaker 02

  But he was, I mean, he's a super important story that most neuroscience hear about.

• 21:58Chuck Nice?

  Is he the one with the spike in the head?

• 21:59Speaker 02

  Yeah, he's the one with the spike in the head. The tamping iron and it went through his head and it, you know, blew out part of his frontal lobe.

• 22:03Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  He stayed alive.

• 22:04Speaker 02

  He stayed alive and, you know, dodged infection, which at the time probably would have killed him with an open head injury. And he was a different person after. He was like a womanizer. He cursed all of the time. He was a big drunk. Before that, he was a very straight-laced.

• 22:16Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So those people today have spikes in their head.

• 22:21Chuck Nice?

  You just saved my life. I got a reason now.

• 22:24Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  It's like, honey, I'm sorry. I just have a spike in my head.

• 22:26Chuck Nice?

  Don't you see this spike?

• 22:30Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So how about memory? Presumably, it can not only change you, can it bring memory into existence or take it out? Can it make memory sharper or lose it?

• 22:38Speaker 02

  What, brain damage?

• 22:39Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Yeah.

• 22:40Speaker 02

  Um, it could. Yeah, actually.

• 22:42Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  We see these movies. How about The Bourne Identity? That's a famous one where he just doesn't know who he is. But I've, well, I was gonna say, I'd never met anyone who never knew who they were, but then...

• 22:50Speaker 02

  There are people who don't know who they are.

• 22:52Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  How many?

• 22:52Speaker 02

  I mean, there are people who have, like, dissociative fugue. I haven't personally.

• 22:55Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Dissociative fugue?

• 22:56Speaker 02

  Yeah, it's a psychological condition.

• 22:58Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  And what's that in English?

• 22:59Speaker 02

  It's, they dissociate from themselves and then they fugue. They go away. And they don't know why they're where they are. So you hear these kind of, you know, true crime stories of people waking up in a parking lot nine towns over and they'd stolen a car. And they don't remember any of it.

• 23:14Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Oh, like the crime committed in that state of mind.

• 23:17Speaker 02

  Yeah, sometimes that's, you know, probably not the case, but even Oliver Sacks did write a story about that. That, that does happen.

• 23:22Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Cause he's especially interested in these kinds of...

• 23:24Speaker 02

  Bizarre.

• 23:25Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  A bizarre, a bizarre thing. And then I was reading that memory begins to decline at age 50. That's, no, that's, that's not right.

• 23:32Chuck Nice?

  Tom, that can't be.

• 23:36Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  We'll get back to that. Me and NASA, we're both losing our memory here. Well, let's go back to Oliver Sacks and my interview with him in his home office in Granite Village, New York. And in this clip, I asked him about memories, false or real, and how you get them and how you lose them. Let's see what he tells us.

• 23:53Speaker 08

  If you do functional imaging of the brain, it is relatively easy to tell if someone is telling a lie, because it's quite a complex business to tell the lie. It's easier to tell the truth, but you cannot tell if someone has a delusion.

• 24:06Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Because they believe they're telling the truth.

• 24:08Speaker 08

  Yeah, whether the belief is well-founded or not, if they have the belief strongly and the emotions and the visualized scenes which go with this, and when people say they've been abducted by aliens, they truly believe this. In a book I wrote, and the name of the book is Uncle Tankston, I mentioned two early memories from 1940 of bombs which had fallen in London. An older brother of mine confirmed one of the memories. He said, yes, it's exactly the way you describe it. But as for the other memory, a memory of incendiary bombs in our garden and of my father's attempts to stop it and to douse it with sand and water, which didn't work. My brother said, you never saw it.

• 24:53Speaker 08

  And I said, what do you mean, I never saw it? He said, we were away at the time. And I said, but I can see it in my mind now. I can hear the crackling of the flames, the shouting. I see the figures of my father and brother. It is so clear in my mind, why? He said, because our older brother sent us a letter. And he said, you were fascinated by the letter and even obsessed. And obviously, not only fascinated by it, but I internalized it and visualized it.

• 25:20Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  It also helps if your brother is a good writer.

• 25:21Speaker 08

  Right, yeah. So, this is a false memory or a secondary memory.

• 25:26Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Is that the same as implanted memories? We've heard...

• 25:30Speaker 08

  Yeah, yeah, in a way, this is a bit like an implanted memory. It had been implanted by a good description, which I think probably appealed to me, you know, romantically, it's so sort of exciting. Though I know now that this is a fictitious or secondary or implanted memory, it does not seem to me any different in quality from the genuine one. And if I had functional MRIs and was asked to recollect these two things, I think one would see pretty much the same areas of the brain, both the visual and emotional areas sort of lighting up.

• 26:00Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Yeah, it's cool. So I think there are two kinds of failures of memory. One of them is remembering things that never happened. Right. And the other one is, is forgetting things that did. Yes. When we come back, we're going to explore what effects drugs have on brain functions. This is StarTalk Radio.

• 26:41Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  We're back, StarTalk. We've got Chuck Nice and Cara Santa Maria in the house. So in this next segment, we want to talk about, on this program on the brain, we want to talk about other ways the brain can malfunction, or function in ways that differently from how nature intended. Right. So, so when I think of this, I think of sort of psychoactive drugs, drugs that people take recreationally or medicinally to alter their state of mind. Cool. And I know our, our special interview guest, Oliver Sacks, he has experimented with drugs and he will tell us about it in some clips coming up. And so, of course, if you're a neuroscientist and medical doctor,

• 27:25Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  you have access to drugs. And it's just interesting. But why would anyone want to do this? I mean, I like my brain. I like when I have deep thoughts about the universe. And almost anything that enters the brain alters your ability to have those thoughts. So I'm just wondering.

• 27:42Speaker 02

  But it may alter it in a positive direction.

• 27:44Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  In a way. Maybe you'll have deeper thoughts. Deeper thoughts.

• 27:46Speaker 02

  Why would anybody want to take drugs?

• 27:49Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  No, let me ask you this. So I don't know anyone who said, here's an equation that I can't solve. Let me take drugs so I can be more intellectually acute in my ability to solve it. I've never seen that.

• 28:00Speaker 02

  Well, I think, I, I think there's, it's two prongs. Are you looking at solving the equation in a very pragmatic way or in a creative way? Do you need an external?

• 28:10Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Where's my paintbrush?

• 28:11Speaker 02

  Really?

• 28:12Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Here's the answer to the equation.

• 28:13Speaker 02

  You don't, you really don't think that physics can be very creative?

• 28:16Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  It is, it can be creative, but in the end, the adjudicator is nature. It is not an unlimited, infinite tapestry.

• 28:24Speaker 02

  And many drugs are found in nature, and we possess receptors in our brains for some of these drugs.

• 28:30Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Is that right? Like what?

• 28:32Speaker 02

  Most all of them. We have cannabinoid receptors in our brains.

• 28:34Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Oh, otherwise it would be neutral to us. Cannaboid. I hear cannabis in that. Cannaboid. Cannaboid. That's code for?

• 28:40Speaker 02

  Cannabis receptors.

• 28:41Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Refer. Which is code for? Pop. Marijuana. Thank you.

• 28:46Speaker 02

  We also have receptors for PCP in our brain, and we have not yet really found the endogenous chemical that binds to that. So that's kind of a quandary.

• 28:52Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Oh, interesting. That's a frontier.

• 28:54Speaker 02

  Yeah, it's a frontier.

• 28:55Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Let's see what Oliver Sacks tells us about his own time in this exploration.

• 28:59Speaker 08

  In the early 1960s, like a lot of people, especially on the west coast where I lived at the time, I took a lot of drugs.

• 29:08Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Oh, now you can't run for office.

• 29:10Speaker 08

  No, no, no. But I really wanted to see what I'd read about other forms of consciousness. To what extent would the world open for me? Would it reveal domains perhaps of natural or supernatural beauty and meaning? Well, they certainly opened domains of natural meaning. On one occasion, since you're an astronomer, I will mention this. It was back in 67. I had started seeing patients with migraine. And one weekend, I took an old book out of the library, written in the 1860s. A book was called On Migraine. And then I loaded up pharmacologically. But instead of giving way to fantasy, I started reading this book.

• 29:55Speaker 08

  And the sort of drug ecstasy coupled with what was in the book. And I started to feel this is a most wonderful book. I felt that the neurological heavens were opening for me, and that migraine was shining like a constellation. One of the people quoted in the book was an astronomer, the younger Herschel, who had migraine. And describing his migraines, he said, he felt like an astronomer, the inward. As I continued to read the book, I thought this is a wonderful, incredible example of mid-Victorian medicine at its best. But it was written in the 1860s, and now this is the 1960s.

• 30:38Speaker 08

  The author of the book was a man called Living, Edward Living. And I thought, who should be the Living of our time? And there was a very disingenuous clamor of names came to me, followed by a very loud inner voice which said, "You silly bugger, you're the man." When I came down from that, that sense that I was the man and this was my subject stayed with me, and I wrote my book on migraine, and I never took drugs again. So in a way, the opening or awakening I had was in that drug experience.

• 31:12Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Interesting. So he takes drugs and decides to read a book rather than jump off a balcony?

• 31:17Chuck Nice?

  This guy is really a scientist, that's all I gotta say. Anytime you do drugs and you're just like, hmm, what should I do? Crazy sex? Buy a couple hookers? I think I should read a book.

• 31:27Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That's right.

• 31:28Chuck Nice?

  You are truly a scientist.

• 31:30Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Yeah, that's a whole other state of mind.

• 31:32Chuck Nice?

  Exactly.

• 31:33Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Deep within that. I was doing some homework on this, and I learned that, I don't know if you knew this, Cara, that in the 1950s, the CIA experimented with LSD to see if they could alter the memories and perceptions of, for espionage purposes. I don't know if you knew about that. Didn't seem to work? I don't know. I don't know the outcome.

• 31:54Chuck Nice?

  The outcome was this: everybody experimented on ended up following the Grateful Dead.

• 31:59Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Actually, so that was in the 50s, and that's what birthed the 1960s. A lot of AWOL soldiers there, I think. There it is. And of course, this psychogenic factors are not unique to Western culture or modern culture. You know, Native Americans long ago, well, maybe still, you know, the peyotes. Where do you get that from? A cactus or something?

• 32:20Chuck Nice?

  For your vision quest.

• 32:21Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Yeah, so it's always, I find it interesting, but are you suggesting that the people who take these inner trips, that they're somehow, do they function better as people interacting with other people? Now, there's this movie out now, what's it called? The Pill?

• 32:37Chuck Nice?

  Now, it's with Bradley Cooper, it might as well be called the pill.

• 32:41Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So it's where, so he's apparent, I haven't seen the movie yet, but I'm told he takes a pill and he, and it actually builds the mental powers and acuity that he has.

• 32:51Speaker 02

  I think they're trying to say that once he takes the pill, he's now open to experience everything. And pull it, but the truth is, if we didn't have selective attention, we would be less functional.

• 33:00Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Oh, okay.

• 33:01Speaker 02

  Significantly less functional.

• 33:02Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Selective attention that allows you to not be distracted by-

• 33:06Speaker 02

  Yeah, we have to be able to filter what gets into our heads and stays there.

• 33:09Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So people with ADD, they don't have these filters, is that-

• 33:11Speaker 02

  Yeah, they have less of them, yeah.

• 33:12Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Less of them.

• 33:13Chuck Nice?

  So it's just like, I'm going to make the incision right below the aorta. What the hell is that?

• 33:18Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Well, that's a cute little bunny over in the head.

• 33:20Speaker 02

  Why is there a bunny in the operating room?

• 33:23Chuck Nice?

  Because I'm on peyote!

• 33:24Speaker 02

  Oh, yeah!

• 33:25Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So you don't want ADD surgeons, yes, that would be bad.

• 33:29Speaker 02

  No, that would be bad. Unless they're medicated.

• 33:31Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Well, yeah, and so also, there are people who have, what I wonder is if the people have deep religious experience, they see Jesus, or Mohammed, whatever it might be, what parts, have people studied what parts of the brain are being excited? And what visions they might have, and whether that's similar to whatever might be stimulated by drugs? Or their bodies producing drugs that give them these visions?

• 33:52Speaker 02

  The actual visions?

• 33:53Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  The actual visions.

• 33:54Speaker 02

  Well, I think that there are probably a lot of different parts. I know that there are scientists out there, like Andy Newberg, who has written books about religious experience, and he thinks that this is a genetic thing, it's something that's in all of us, it's, we have a God gene in our brain that allows us to see that. I personally disagree with that view. I don't think that religious experience is something that's always encoded in our brains. I think it comes from external sources.

• 34:19Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  But it could be in some people's brains and not others, right? What's wrong with that?

• 34:22Chuck Nice?

  So it could be, it could be a genetic trait for some people.

• 34:24Speaker 02

  But it could be that that's what, whatever's happening in your brain, that's how you choose to describe the experiences in religious terms.

• 34:31Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  I see, because you have a religious context in which to interpret it, and if you don't have the religion, maybe it's aliens that you're looking at.

• 34:36Speaker 02

  Exactly.

• 34:36Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Right.

• 34:37Chuck Nice?

  Which is very easy to figure out, because all we have to do is examine your anus.

• 34:41Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Is that right?

• 34:42Chuck Nice?

  Seriously! And if there's no trauma, you have not been aboard a ship.

• 34:46Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Is that how that works? Thanks, I, next time I'm abducted, I will carry that.

• 34:54Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So getting back to my interview with Oliver Sacks, we, uh, he, he went on to talk about how you can have these profound visions and what might induce them and what they might mean. So let's see, this is in his, uh, in his home office, Greenwich Village, New York. Check it out.

• 35:12Speaker 08

  I wondered whether one could imagine something one had never experienced, in particular whether one could imagine a color one had never seen. And I built up a sort of pharmacological mountain. I won't go into details. And when I was very loaded, this connected my mind with the seventh color of the spectrum, indigo, and the fact that no two people will ever quite agree as to what is indigo, or whether there is an indigo. And I said to myself at the peak of my experience, I want to see indigo now. And suddenly, as if thrown by a paintbrush, a trembling pear-shaped blob of indigo appeared on the wall. And

• 35:55Speaker 08

  I leant towards it in a sort of ecstasy. It was a color I'd never seen. I thought, purely metaphorically, of course, this is the color of heaven. I thought this is the color which Giotto had tried to get, but never could. I also thought, it's a color which is no longer in the world. This was the color of the Paleozoic Sea, but has disappeared. And as I led forward, the blob disappeared. But I somehow felt that blob not only as luminous, but as numinous.

• 36:27Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Numinous. I had to look up that word, Chuck.

• 36:30Chuck Nice?

  Numinous.

• 36:31Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Numinous.

• 36:32Speaker 02

  I thought he said numerous.

• 36:33Chuck Nice?

  No, numinous, which I believe means of or relating to spiritual experience.

• 36:37Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Exactly. Yes. Chuck, the Ivy, Ivy League educated comedian we have here.

• 36:42Speaker 02

  That was very poetic, I think, that interview. It was beautiful.

• 36:46Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  It was. Well, he's a beautiful man. I mean, all about, everything about him. He's soft spoken and he would never, you know, some people have like the evil side of it. You can't even picture that.

• 36:54Speaker 02

  But then you have to bleep him in interviews.

• 36:56Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Well, bleep him quoting someone else. That's what that was. We've got to take a quick break, but we'll start when we return.

• 37:27Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  This is StarTalk Radio. Welcome back. During the break Chuck, you commented that you swig Robitussin for what reason?

• 37:34Chuck Nice?

  No! Okay, here's the deal, because we were talking about pharmacological drugs being used or inducing hallucinations. And I know that people actually drink Robitussin, prescription-strength Robitussin.

• 37:47Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  You know people who do this?

• 37:48Chuck Nice?

  I know someone who, well, I know somebody who does it.

• 37:50Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  I've heard that phrasing before.

• 37:51Chuck Nice?

  Seriously?

• 37:52Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  I have a friend who does it.

• 37:53Chuck Nice?

  Here's why I never do it. I'll tell you why, very, very quickly, I'll tell you why. So this guy and I are hanging out, he's drinking Lick or Robitussin, that's the street name for it, okay? He starts getting so high that he's hung over, his body's slumped over, and he's calling me Betty. Now, I'm like, two things. One, I don't know who Betty is, but if she looks anything like me, that's one ugly broad.

• 38:12Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Okay, two.

• 38:13Chuck Nice?

  And two, I don't ever want to drink anything that makes me think another man is Betty.

• 38:18Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Betty, well, period. That cured you of your Robitussin.

• 38:22Chuck Nice?

  Right.

• 38:23Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So Kara, are there psychometric?

• 38:26Speaker 02

  Psychotropic?

• 38:27Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Psychotropic drugs that are prescribed for any particular reason?

• 38:31Speaker 02

  Not to give people hallucinations on purpose, but of course, there are lots of psychotropics that are prescribed. Anything from ADHD to schizophrenia to depression, anxiety, all of these disorders require drug treatment, if you have drug treatment, with psychotropics.

• 38:45Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So psychopharmacology is all about getting into your head?

• 38:48Speaker 02

  Speed, people take speed on purpose?

• 38:51Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  On purpose, just for that.

• 38:52Speaker 02

  To help with attention.

• 38:53Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  To help it. Let's get back to my interview with Oliver Sacks and see what he talks about hallucinations. I don't know if he's ever had one.

• 39:01Speaker 08

  I'm very interested in hallucinations. Some of the hallucinations occur with people who are blind, and being partly blind myself, I have a few low-level hallucinations myself, but they're only really of blobs of color and geometrical figures and things like that. But it puts people on the spot if they have a hallucination. Hallucination is not like imagery. It's like perception. It seems to come from outside. You have no sense.

• 39:29Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That it's inside.

• 39:30Speaker 08

  Uh, yeah, that you are generating it or any part of you. So you hear music. You run to the window. You look outside for the source of the music. It's only when you can't find a source for the music that you perhaps start to think, has some part of my brain gone on automatic? Or you may not think that. You may maintain a false belief. One of my old patients was convinced that the patient next door had a phonograph and was putting on the same record again and again. When Schumann had some musical hallucinations at one point, he thought it was divine music.

• 40:04Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So Kara, people can have hallucinations. And if you're religious, you have this, this sort of inclination to think that it's divine.

• 40:11Speaker 02

  Yeah, you may.

• 40:11Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  If you're not, you just think, others might just think you're crazy.

• 40:14Speaker 08

  Right.

• 40:14Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Or they might think you're crazy in both cases.

• 40:16Speaker 02

  You may think you are crazy personally, or you may not identify those hallucinations as being external.

• 40:21Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  What is your capacity to judge that you yourself are not of your own mind?

• 40:26Speaker 02

  I think it's, it's, it just really depends on the person. I think that some schizophrenics are aware of their disorder and they know that they need the halal and, or whatever drugs they take to get through the day. And I think some have absolutely no idea that they're experiencing hallucinations and delusions.

• 40:38Chuck Nice?

  The voices in my head just told me you are correct.

• 40:41Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  And so how about the, the kids? We're prescribing Ritalin for kids. That's, that's affecting their brain in some way.

• 40:46Speaker 02

  Yeah, yeah, that's what I was mentioning before. That's speed.

• 40:47Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That, oh, that, that is speed. Okay.

• 40:49Speaker 02

  Well, it's, it's, it's like speed.

• 40:51Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Speed like.

• 40:51Speaker 02

  It's speed like, it's a speed like drug. And it does, you know, we don't really know the long-term effects of kids taking these drugs year after year after year.

• 40:59Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Uh, we don't, because they're the first experiment in this.

• 41:01Speaker 02

  Exactly.

• 41:02Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  They're not adults yet. That could be a whole other, we can start another decade like the sixties. We're priming them for that. Uh, let's see, I think my one last clip coming up with Oliver Sacks and we'd speak a little more about hallucinations and find out what he tells us.

• 41:18Speaker 08

  Among the many sorts of hallucination are sorts which one may wake with suddenly in the night. You wake up suddenly and there's a pterodactyl above your head. These hippopotamic hallucinations, as they're called, are often of giant figures, sometimes frightening figures, sometimes an immense spider, although sometimes of a little man in green, sometimes of an angel. They may be akin to dreams in some ways, but here you are conscious and the thing is with you in the room, there's a presence in the room. It's not entirely easy coming to terms with something like this. I've actually recently been hearing about a ten-year-old boy who woke suddenly in the

• 42:02Speaker 08

  night and saw a figure of a tall woman next to his bed who told him she was his guardian angel. He turned on the light and the figure didn't disappear. He ran into his parents. When he came back, the figure had disappeared. Now, this little boy was very disturbed. He had no particular belief in angels or visions, but something had happened which he could not deny, but could not explain, and could not integrate into his worldview. I suspect that visionary experience, whether drug-induced or in dreams or whatever, has

• 42:42Speaker 08

  played a part in the genesis of everything from folklore to religion. For example, for some reason, there are physiological reasons for this, Lilliputian hallucinations, so-called, are rather common of little people. And one finds in almost every culture that there are elves, fairies, trolls, little people. One wants to say they're not at the sort of lofty level of angels in the heavens, but they do represent another reality. I think this is almost built into the brain as well as built into culture.

• 43:16Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Before we end the show, we've added exclusive, never-before-heard content, taken from that very same interview. He and I got to chatting about mysticism, religion, and the importance of finding happiness and meaning in scientific truth. Let's hear what Oliver Sacks had to say about all of that. I'm here with Oliver Sacks, that is home in New York. And Oliver, you're an expert on the mind and all the curious ways it can malfunction. And as a scientist, when I see people either ignore evidence or believe things for which there is no evidence, we don't view that as a malfunction. We view that as just part of how people behave.

• 43:56Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  But it severely interferes with how and the person's ability to understand the natural world. What's your explanation for this? So how do you see this from your lines of research?

• 44:07Speaker 08

  I think all of us need to have a sense of meaning, need to have beliefs. We have emotional needs and intellectual needs. Certainly, when we are very young, these are going to be vested in our parents and sort of powerful comforting figures. And we're not yet having to deal with the physical world that much. We are so well cared for. Human beings must have come into the world 100,000 years ago or whatever and looked at the stars and looked at the mountains and wondered how this all came to be. And I think there is a very strong craving in all of us for cosmic meaning. How did this get there?

• 44:52Speaker 08

  How did this come about? Cosmologies, of course, are provided in every religion. Cosmology is usually not only of creation, but often of a caring creator as well. Certainly, this is so for the monotheistic religions. And it's not easy to give up that way of thinking. I think it's astounding that in this year, 200 years after Darwin's birth, 150 years after the Origin.

• 45:23Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  The Origin of Species.

• 45:25Speaker 08

  Yeah, the Origin of Species. The belief in supernaturalism, here in America at least, is stronger than ever. You know, in the 1880s, Nietzsche wrote about the death of God. When I was a student 50 years ago, I think there was a strong feeling that we might be moving towards a more secular world. But it's gone in the other direction.

• 45:48Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That fact tells us, at least here in the West, or in America, that there's a very strong restoring force back to those ways of thinking. Otherwise, we would have just moved towards a rational world, you know, step by step, without ever looking back.

• 46:06Speaker 08

  Yes, it's a very, very strong need. Whether I'm lucky or unlucky in not feeling that particular need strongly, and also being so delighted and enchanted and raptured, ecstatic in a way, by the natural world, that I don't feel a craving for any other. I think that the existing world is extremely wonderful and complete. And I don't, well, I don't feel in myself any disposition to supernaturalism.

• 46:36Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  In other words, your read of nature is sufficiently fulfilling, that there's no other, you don't have to reach for any other kind of source of enlightenment?

• 46:46Speaker 08

  No, I mean, obviously, art and human contact give meaning for me, but I don't feel this, any metaphysical urge to religion. I was brought up in a fairly orthodox Jewish household, at least so far as practice was concerned. My parents went to synagogue, we kept a kosher house. Unleavened bread was destroyed at the Passover and so forth. However, I don't know what my parents actually believed. Questions of religious belief were never discussed by them or with them. They didn't necessarily believe anything.

• 47:27Speaker 08

  I think for them, religion was mostly a question of practice and ritual and ethics and remembrance. However, at quite an early age, there's a particular incident. My mother was an anatomist and a surgeon and also fond of botany. And when I was about 10 years old, so we were out in the garden, it was a lovely summer day, and the bees and butterflies were doing their thing. And my mother explained that they were fertilizing the flowers. And we had a magnolia tree in the garden, and this was covered with little beetles. And I said, "What are these beetles doing?" And my mother said, "Well, they will look after fertilization." And I said, "But why beetles?"

• 48:12Speaker 08

  And she said the magnolia is a very ancient flowering plant. She said they developed eighty or ninety million years ago. And at that time, there weren't any bees or butterflies. There were only beetles around, and they've stayed with the beetles. Now, as I think of this, you know, sixty-five years ago, I still remember the shock when, as it were, deep time and a natural process seemed seemed to open out. The very word eighty million years made me shiver. The idea that there might have been a time when there weren't birds and butterflies. And for me, I think there was a sense of epiphany here. There was something akin to a religious vision.

• 48:57Speaker 08

  But the religious vision was in fact one of of evolution and natural selection.

• 49:03Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So it's not a supernatural awakening. It was a scientific awakening for you?

• 49:07Speaker 08

  Yes, exactly.

• 49:08Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So maybe the the lesson here is for all those who are trying to hit people over the head for their unscientific ways, they're not really substituting into that void that they've just created, the sense of wonder and enchantment about the natural world. They're just kind of leaving there bleeding in the street. Is that a fair characterization for what some people are doing out there, trying to get people to think?

• 49:31Speaker 08

  There are a number of evangelistic atheists around, like Dawkins and Dennett. And but I I am not an evangelistic atheist. I think this is mostly people's own business. I am very worried when faith-based things get into education and politics and faith-based religion instead of evidence-based religion. I've certainly, as a as a medical man, I have I've seen lives lost and sacrificed through irrational beliefs. In particular, I I don't want to, I'm not sure whether I should mention particular religious sects, but I've had young patients whose parents refused to have them medicated and

• 50:12Speaker 08

  and say that, you know, the Almighty will look after them when they need penicillin. I don't think the Almighty would have anything against penicillin, so to speak.

• 50:22Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Sounds like then people might be in need of just such an awakening in their own lives. Maybe not everyone has that kind of life experience and so they're left susceptible going into adulthood believing things that just feel good rather than are actually true.

• 50:38Speaker 08

  You need to find things which feel good and are true. But it's the nature of the we, poor fragile bipeds in a complex and dangerous environment that it's very understandable. We, you know, we all reach out for power and comfort of a somewhat irrational soul.

• 50:56Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So you're prepared to accept that as a natural part of life, but you're not on a crusade to rid people of this. You recognize it as a natural consequence of our evolutionary trajectory.

• 51:06Speaker 08

  Um, yes, I'd say that, although I would hope that the trajectory might take us past this. The world is a frightening, is a huge perplexing frightening place and it's very understandable, say, that one wants to fill it with friendly spirits, to explain it so the woods will have dryads and the streams will have naiads. I think there's a powerful need to humanize the world or anthropomorphize it or put in figures who are intelligible to us, who would explain the world and who will keep an eye on us.

• 51:42Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  So the not knowing is then a fearful state of mind?

• 51:46Speaker 08

  Fearful, but it also produces awe with a capital A. It's a state of wonder as well. This state of wonder, I think, can propel one in a mystical and religious direction. It will also propel one in a scientific direction. The term Darwin used has again and again is wonder and delight. The question as to whether art needs religion is an interesting one.

• 52:15Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Or needs the mental states. That would give you religion.

• 52:19Speaker 08

  My good friend Jonathan Miller, he directed an incredible performance of The Matthew Passion. He's done this several times at BAM. And everyone, including the most devout people, are moved to the depths. After this happened, Jonathan remarked jokingly, he said, "Not bad for an old Jewish atheist." However, this old Jewish atheist was able to create or recreate, using Bach and his own imagination. I don't know how much one can have religious imagination or mystical imagination without belief. There is a great conductor, David Randolph.

• 53:01Speaker 08

  He's ninety-five years young. He is the most amazing man. He leaps on the podium like a twenty-year-old. He has conducted the Cecilia Chorus, which is a secular chorus, for sixty years. Now, for example, when he conducted a Messiah, Handel's Messiah, he made a point of saying to the audience beforehand, he said that he thought there was no such thing as religious music. And that some of the most beautiful parts of the Messiah, Handel had lifted from contemporary erotic and sometimes bawdy Italian songs of his own time. The same music could be fitted into an erotic context, a solemn religious context, any context.

• 53:45Speaker 08

  That was the context and the association. And he would also bring out that, say, Berlioz and Brahms and Verdi had written profoundly moving requiem, but they were all atheists. However, I, you know, when one goes to cathedrals and you see the power of religion to inspire something like this. But I think an interesting question is whether there can be any substitute in the creative imagination for these mystical and religious states of mind. Einstein here talks about the mysterious and that this is the most beautiful experience we have and so the cradle of all true art and science.

• 54:31Speaker 08

  But Einstein, I think, seems to regard God as a colleague.

• 54:37Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  Well, so thank you, Oliver Sacks, for appearing on StarTalk.

• 54:39Speaker 08

  Okay. Thank you very much. I've enjoyed it, Neil.

• 54:44Neil deGrasse Tyson?

  That was Oliver Sacks, friend, scientist, and brilliant thinker. He will certainly be missed. For StarTalk Radio, I'm Neil deGrasse Tyson, and as always, keep looking up.