#805: Philip Goff — Exploring Consciousness and Non-Ordinary Religion, Galileo's Error, Panpsychism, Heretical Ideas, and Therapeutic Belief

Philip Goff https://philipgoffphilosophy.com/ is a professor of philosophy at Durham University. His main research focus is consciousness, but he is interested in many questions about the nature of reality. He is most known for defending panpsychism, the view that consciousness is a fundamental and ubiquitous feature of the physical world. He is the author of Galileo's Error: Foundations for a New Science of Consciousness https://www.amazon.com/Galileos-Error-Foundations-Science-Consciousness/dp/0525564772/?tag=offsitoftimfe-20 and Why? The Purpose of the Universe https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198883765/?tag=offsitoftimfe-20. This episode is brought to you by: Our Place's Titanium Always Pan® Pro https://fromourplace.com/tim using nonstick technology that’s coating-free and made without PFAS, otherwise known as “Forever Chemicals”: https://fromourplace.com/tim (Get 10% off today!) AG1 https://drinkag1.com/tim all-in-one nutritional supplement: https://DrinkAG1.com/Tim https://drinkag1.com/tim (1-year supply of Vitamin D (and 5 free AG1 travel packs) with your first subscription purchase.) Helix Sleep https://helixsleep.com/tim premium mattresses: https://HelixSleep.com/Tim https://helixsleep.com/tim (20% off on all mattress orders) Connect with Philip Goff: https://philipgoffphilosophy.com/ https://x.com/Philip_Goff/ https://bsky.app/profile/philipgoff.bsky.social Timestamps: [00:00:00] Start. [00:06:24] What is panpsychism? [00:11:19] Common misunderstandings about panpsychism. [00:16:08] Roger Penrose and quantum consciousness. [00:17:26] Gödel’s incompleteness theorem. [00:19:22] The challenges of scientific consensus on consciousness. [00:21:35] Integrated Information Theory (IIT). [00:27:17] What early quantum pioneers like Max Planck and Niels Bohr thought about consciousness. [00:33:15] Defining consciousness and qualia. [00:35:41] Galileo’s Error: How science removed consciousness from study. [00:41:03] Materialist vs. panpsychist. [00:43:30] The neuroanatomical seat of consciousness debate. [00:45:41] Scientific challenges around the public observation of consciousness. [00:50:35] Exploring potential payoffs and ethical considerations of figuring out consciousness. [00:57:01] How virtual reality reminded Philip to appreciate ordinary reality. [01:00:31] Bertrand Russell and William James as philosophical heroes. [01:02:05] Science seems mum on the matter of matter. [01:06:53] William James and mystical experiences. [01:09:20] Philip’s journey as a “heretical Christian.” [01:19:23] Why Philip left Christianity at age 14. [01:20:20] Rediscovering mystical traditions within Christianity. [01:31:41] Karen Armstrong on the modern corruption of religious belief. [01:33:56] Is true belief a prerequisite for building a community through religion and enjoying its therapeutic benefits? [01:48:40] Psychedelics and numinous experiences. [01:51:36] Sufism and mystical poetry. [01:56:10] Renaming traditional religious terms for broader accessibility. [02:01:09] The potential resurgence of religion and new spiritual movements. [02:05:42] Philip’s billboard. [02:08:36] Parting thoughts. See Privacy Policy at https://art19.com/privacy and California Privacy Notice at https://art19.com/privacy#do-not-sell-my-info.

Speaker names marked ? are inferred from speaking time and the show’s known hosts — they are not voice-verified.

• 0:00Tim Ferriss?

  Hello, boys and girls, ladies and germs. This is Tim Ferriss. Welcome to another episode of The Tim Ferriss Show. I would say that it is my hope with conversations like this to reintroduce perhaps a degree of wonder and questioning and awareness in my listeners that enriches their lives. Because the how-to stuff, the tactical, practical, sort of toaster instruction-type, do this, do that, is helpful, but sometimes the what-to-do question takes precedent over everything else, and you can end up operating as something

• 0:43Tim Ferriss?

  like an ant in an ant colony. And I, with these philosophical conversations, hope to open people to different perspectives and ways of looking at their own lives and the world around them. And my guest today is Philip Goff. Philip is a professor of philosophy at Durham University. His main research focus is consciousness, big topic, but he's interested in many questions about the nature of reality. We cover a lot of ground in this conversation. He is best known for defending panpsychism, the view that consciousness is a fundamental and ubiquitous feature of the physical world. Fifteen years ago, panpsychism was kind of a joke. It was laughed at, if it was thought of at all. Goff has led a movement that has

• 1:25Tim Ferriss?

  made panpsychism a mainstream position, taught to undergraduates, and widely discussed in academic journals. He is the author of Galileo's Error: Foundations for a New Science of Consciousness, and Why: The Purpose of the Universe. He's published many, many, fifty or so, academic articles, and has written extensively for newspapers and magazines, including Scientific American, The Wall Street Journal, The Guardian, and many others. You can find him on Twitter, that is X, at Philip underscore Goff, that's P-H-I-L-I-P underscore G-O-F-F, and you can find all things Philip at PhilipGoffPhilosophy.com. We're going to get right into the conversation, but first, just a few words from the people who make this podcast possible.

• 2:07Tim Ferriss?

  As many of you know, for the last few years, I've been sleeping on a Midnight Luxe mattress from today's sponsor, Helix Sleep. I also have one in the guest bedroom downstairs, and feedback from friends has always been fantastic. Kind of over the top, to be honest. I mean, they frequently say, "It's the best night of sleep they've had in ages." "What kind of mattresses?" "What do you do?" "What's the magic juju?" It's something they comment on without any prompting from me whatsoever. I also recently had a chance to test the Helix Sunset Elite in a new guest bedroom, which I sometimes sleep in, and I picked it for its very soft but supportive feel to help with some lower back pain that I've had. The Sunset Elite delivers exceptional comfort while putting the right support in the right spots. It is made with five tailored foam layers, including a base layer with full perimeter

• 2:51Tim Ferriss?

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• 3:36Tim Ferriss?

  So, take a look. With Helix, better sleep starts now. In the last handful of years, I've become very interested in environmental toxins, avoiding microplastics, and many other commonly found compounds all over the place. One place I looked is in the kitchen. Many people don't realize just how toxic their cookware is or can be. A lot of non-stick pans, practically all of them, can release harmful forever chemicals, PFAS, in other words, spelled P-F-A-S, into your food, your home, and then ultimately that ends up in your body. Teflon is a prime example of this. It is still the forever chemical that most companies are using. So our place...

• 4:17Tim Ferriss?

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• 5:00Tim Ferriss?

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• 5:38Tim Ferriss?

  in your kitchen, just head to fromourplace.com/tim and use code TIM for 10% off of your order. You can enjoy a 100-day risk-free trial, free shipping, and free returns. Check it out. Fromourplace.com/tim. At this altitude, I can run flat out for a half mile before my hands start shaking. Can I ask you a personal question?

• 6:02Speaker 01

  No, we're just in an appropriate time.

• 6:05Speaker 02

  I'm a cybernetic organism, living tissue over metal endoskeleton.

• 6:19Tim Ferriss?

  Philip, let's kick it off with a question about another interview, which I very rarely do, but in this particular case, I think it will offer us perhaps a road into tying a few things together for people who are listening. And this relates to an interview by Pulitzer Prize winning author Gareth Cook, which ended up being one of the most viewed articles in Scientific American of 2020. Philosophy can get very abstract, it can really get out there, it can become hard to grasp, or in the minds of many, hard to apply. But let's begin with what made that interview stick? What do you think some of the concepts, or ingredients, or lines, anything was that

• 7:04Tim Ferriss?

  made that resonate with so many people?

• 7:07Speaker 03

  Rather than anything I've done, I think just consciousness and this strange view I've built my career defending, known as panpsychism. It's a view that somehow resonates with people in all sorts of ways. It's been an incredible journey because it's a view that 15 years ago was ridiculed insofar as it was thought about at all, at least in my Western philosophical tradition. But in this short time period, it's come to be a mainstream academic position that is taught to undergraduates and is widely published on in academic journals. So it's been an astonishing transformation, really, and it's really been exciting to

• 7:52Speaker 03

  be part of that. Why does it resonate so much with people? One part of it is, I think, people who've had psychedelic experiences. Many of them have this sense that consciousness pervades the universe in a deeper sense than in the more familiar, ordinary scientific view of things. In fact, on the questionnaire for mystical experiences, you know, the proper psychological questionnaire, one of the boxes you tick is, "Do you have a sense that there is a living presence in all things?" And so I suppose, I mean, this has not been, from my academic starting point, this was not the route I took.

• 8:33Speaker 03

  To panpsychism, I think it solves a lot of the mysteries and paradoxes of consciousness. There are cold-blooded intellectual reasons to go for it. But many people reading about my work who've had psychedelic experiences, something about it makes sense and, you know, and I'm open to thinking about that too, very much.

• 8:53Tim Ferriss?

  Let's define some terms, right? Because sometimes I think panpsychism gets a bad rap or maybe just needs a rebrand, like Patagonian toothfish being renamed Chilean sea bass. Maybe that's what panpsychism needs, I'm not sure. But I want to talk about the cold-hearted intellectual reasons or arguments for panpsychism, but in simple terms, because I think some folks can maybe conflate it with something akin to animism and add on a few layers that are perhaps unnecessary. What is, in simple terms, for a lay audience, panpsychism?

• 9:30Speaker 03

  That's a good starting point. I mean, in terms of the rebrand, actually, my, my good friend, Annika Harris, who's very sympathetic to panpsychism, she's always saying, "This is a terrible name, we need to rebrand it." But I kind of think it's, it's a bit late, it's kind of stuck. But panpsychism is the view that consciousness goes all the way down to the fundamental building blocks of reality. Perhaps a way into that is, you know, if you start with human consciousness, that is incredibly rich and complex, the result of millions of years of evolution. But consciousness comes in all shapes and sizes, you know, the consciousness of a sheep

• 10:14Speaker 03

  is simpler to the consciousness of a human being. What it's like to be a snail is simpler to what it's like to be a sheep. And as we move to simpler and simpler forms of life, we find simpler and simpler forms of conscious experience. For the panpsychist, this keeps going on, right down to the fundamental building blocks with perhaps fundamental particles like electrons and quarks having incredibly simple forms of conscious experience to reflect their incredibly simple nature. So it's a common misunderstanding, people always think, "Oh, what are you saying?" Electrons are feeling existential angst or wondering if it's Tuesday or something.

• 10:58Speaker 03

  But the idea is that's human consciousness, right? Don't be anthropomorphic about this, you know? This is for panpsychists, human consciousness is a sort of weird, highly evolved form of what exists throughout the universe.

• 11:13Tim Ferriss?

  So there's so many different directions we could go here. We may get into some rather gnarly questions quickly.

• 11:22Tim Ferriss?

  So just to reiterate and to sort of clarify for myself or for listeners also. So from human to sheep, but all the way down to, we can certainly go to quarks and so on, with the way you described it, but you would have a pool of water, maybe the water droplets, rocks, trees, the constituent parts of trees, et cetera, and so on, sort of as you reduce down. How would you think about that?

• 11:49Speaker 03

  Just one small qualification there. Yeah, it is a kind of common misunderstanding that panpsychists think absolutely everything is conscious. And it's understandable, that's actually what the word means. Pan, everything, psyche, mind. But panpsychists don't necessarily think literally everything is conscious. The basic commitment is that the fundamental building blocks are conscious in some very simple way. Maybe electrons and quarks, like the example I just gave, but maybe not. I mean, it's a question for physicists, not philosophers like me. What are the fundamental components of reality?

• 12:31Speaker 03

  These days, many theoretical physicists are more inclined to think that our universe is made up of universe-wide fields and particles are just local excitations in those fields. So if you combine that with panpsychism. You get the view that the fundamental forms of consciousness underlie these universe-wide fields. This gets closer to a form of panpsychism known as cosmosychism, that the universe itself is conscious. Although, again, we need to be careful. That doesn't necessarily mean the universe is God, or the universe is... It could be just the universe is just kind of

• 13:11Speaker 03

  this messy, blobby, nonsense consciousness, right? So that's the idea, the basic things are conscious, and that many other things, of course, are conscious. Humans and animals and our consciousness is somehow built up from these simpler forms of consciousness. But it doesn't mean every random combination of conscious particles makes something that has its own unified consciousness. So it doesn't necessarily mean, you know, rocks and socks and tables and chairs are conscious. I remember teaching this to our undergraduates, and I had a PowerPoint slide up with socks on and saying, "Your socks might not be conscious."

• 13:52Speaker 03

  And one of the students obviously took a photo of that, put it on social media. This is what we're learning in my classes. But anyway, I think it was all lighthearted. But, yeah, so although some panpsychists do think literally everything is conscious, I just mentioned Annika. I think she thinks that. My friend Luke Roloff's very good, very down-to-earth, scientific panpsychist philosopher, but he does think literally everything is conscious. But even then, it's not going to be the kind of consciousness a human being has. That is a very specific, highly organized form of information processing. Whereas if

• 14:33Speaker 03

  a table is conscious, it's going to be just some meaningless, fragmented, disunified nonsense. But yeah, that's the basic idea.

• 14:42Tim Ferriss?

  So first things first, I want to give a nod to Annika Harris. She has a... Very extensive audio documentary that relates to consciousness. People want to do a deep dive into these subjects. But this word, consciousness, may be bothering people at this point in the conversation, kind of like a pebble in a shoe, because for most people wandering about, going to Starbucks and watching Netflix and so on, consciousness, they may have not taken the time to define it precisely, but the intuited sense is something along the lines of awareness. Maybe it's awareness that you are aware of, but there's some degree of awareness.

• 15:23Tim Ferriss?

  So when you talk about a table, or socks, or rocks, I understand that you didn't imply that everything has its own consciousness, but how should they think of this word when applied to what people would consider inanimate objects, for instance?

• 15:40Speaker 03

  It's a really important question, because it is a little bit of an ambiguous word, and I agree with you when I'm talking to the public, the people often think that it means something quite sophisticated, like self-consciousness, or awareness of one's own existence.

• 16:00Tim Ferriss?

  And Philip, could I interrupt you for one second?

• 16:02Speaker 03

  Yeah.

• 16:03Tim Ferriss?

  I thought what I might do is just kind of line up some support before we go too far into this, and are there any physicists, because some people might think of them as the most refined plumbers of reality, sorry guys if that's insulting, I just came up with that on the fly, but architects, maybe, decipherers, detectives, there we go, choose your label, are there any physicists, credible physicists, who would more or less agree with some of the positions and theories that you are describing related to panpsychism?

• 16:41Speaker 03

  One person that stands out here is Roger Penrose, who's a Nobel Prize-winning physicist, fascinating, very interesting thinker. I was lucky enough to have one-to-one lunch with Roger Penrose once, kind of by chance at a, at a big consciousness conference and-

• 16:57Tim Ferriss?

  That's lucky, he's getting up there in age.

• 16:59Speaker 03

  I was in the queue, and one of the organizers sat him down, and we just sat together, and we, we had a lovely chat about our, our different views, but he's defended a view that's- Very close to panpsychism, the quantum collapse is connected to the generation of consciousness. One thing, I don't know how much you want to get into his view.

• 17:19Tim Ferriss?

  Let's get into it.

• 17:20Speaker 03

  But he's influenced by Gödel's incompleteness theorem, which, not getting into too much detail, you know, roughly proves that for any finite set of axioms, you're not going to be able to generate algorithmically all of the truths of mathematics. This was the fascinating thing Gödel proved, right? And so that leads Penrose to think, well, there must be something non-computational about human mathematical thought, because if it was just algorithmic and computational, we wouldn't get all those truths of arithmetic that we are able to comprehend. And then where that leads him is he thinks, well, it must be at the quantum level rather

• 18:04Speaker 03

  than at the level where we have classical physics. And this led him, in combination with scientist Stuart Hammeroff, to explore the less common position that consciousness is connected to quantum stuff in the brain in what we call the microtubules. So yet, that's absolutely fascinating position that Roger has got into. I mean, another question that might be more pertinent is what about neuroscientists? Because I suppose, you know, consciousness is in the purview of the neuroscience, is the science of consciousness, I think, is part of neuroscience.

• 18:39Tim Ferriss?

  So let's hop to that, but I want to give you just a bit of trivia related to Penrose. So I followed Penrose's work and Hammeroff, very deeply interested, and I ended up, by a number of lucky coincidences, doing a week at Waddam College, where I believe he is a fellow, and his book was in my room where I stayed, and I asked someone about him. And I feel like I just missed him by a week, and I was very sad about this.

• 19:10Speaker 03

  He's so open-minded, he's touched so many areas of thought, just a really fascinating figure.

• 19:16Tim Ferriss?

  So neuroscientists, let's hop into that arena.

• 19:20Speaker 03

  I mean, the first thing you should know about the science of consciousness is there is no consensus. There is famously, I don't know whether you've heard this, the 25 years ago, the neuroscientist Christoph Koch bet the philosopher David Chalmers that, oh, this would all be wrapped up by now. We would have tracked, we would have tracked what we call the neural correlates of consciousness. Those Right. aspects of brain activity that perfectly correspond to consciousness. And he bet him a crate of fine wine and it was a public bet. Well, last, was it last summer or the summer before? He publicly conceded defeat of that because there is no consensus.

• 20:01Speaker 03

  But one of the major possibilities, one of the major views that is disputed and debated is the integrated information theory. And that gets us very close to panpsychism or, or is even itself a form of panpsychism because it entails that consciousness is more widespread than we ordinarily take it to be. And is certainly goes into the inanimate realm. There's two reasons this is getting thought about. I mean, maybe psychedelics is a third reason, but there's two reasons. One is the newfound philosophical interest, but also this interest in the integrated information theory. But also just finally, I mean, I think from what we've already said,

• 20:43Speaker 03

  it becomes clear with consciousness, it is not just a scientific issue. The science is absolutely crucial and the experimental work. But with consciousness, there are so many philosophical questions we need to address. And I think actually what we've found is that's part of the reason we haven't achieved consensus. Because actually, forget the big philosophical questions. How you interpret the scientific data on the brain and consciousness depends on your philosophical assumptions. There's, there's a dispute among scientists about whether consciousness is at the front or the back of the brain. And actually, I think the split on that is something to do with the philosophical assumptions. So we need scientists and philosophers working together.

• 21:29Tim Ferriss?

  I want to get back to that because that's a very meta examination of science and the scientific method that I want to get into. But since I'm a stickler for terms, the integrated information theory, can you speak to that for one moment? And I funded a fair amount of science, also at Johns Hopkins and other places, where I believe they developed the mystical experience questionnaire, at least in part. The integrated information theory, could you define that for us before we get back to the sort of... And for people listening, don't worry, I keep good notes and I have a good memory. We're going to get to the definition of consciousness outside of the broadly layperson interpretation of, say, awareness. Haven't forgotten about it, but just because that might take us down a bunch of side alleys,

• 22:12Tim Ferriss?

  I want to stick where we are for a second. The integrated information theory, what is that?

• 22:17Speaker 03

  So this is one of the proposals. I mean, we can maybe distinguish the sort of scientific task of consciousness from the philosophical task that, as I say, the scientific task is which brain activity goes along with which kinds of conscious experience? And more generally, in general, what is required from a physical system to get consciousness? And integrated information theory is one proposal. And roughly, it says that consciousness corresponds to integration. You get a conscious system when the way in which information is stored in the system depends upon the integration between the parts of the system. They have a mathematically precise way of defining this.

• 23:01Speaker 03

  They represent it with the letter phi. And the proposal is that at the exact moment when a system has more integrated information in the whole than in the parts, that's when the lights come on, that's when you get consciousness.

• 23:17Tim Ferriss?

  That's when the lights come on.

• 23:18Speaker 03

  So, I mean, that is what is so striking about the brain. In fact, the parts of the brain that are associated with consciousness are not necessarily the parts that have the most neurons, but they do seem to be the parts that involve deep, deep integration. Each neuron being connected to hundreds and thousands of others, yielding trillions of connections. I mean, maybe to connect to how computers work, if the integrated information theory turns out to be true... Computers that are anything like what we currently have are actually not going to be conscious, because the way in which information is stored in a computer is less dependent on integration. If you take out a bit of, you know, a few transistors, you won't necessarily lose that much information.

• 24:01Speaker 03

  But if you take out a small part of the brain, at least comparatively, you lose a hell of a lot of information, because the way in which information is stored is so much more holistic and to do with integration. And so the theory basically says, that is the hallmark of consciousness, that's what it's all about.

• 24:21Tim Ferriss?

  So, let's perhaps make a contrast of styles, and then, because I don't want to hold out and tease people for too long, we'll try to take a stab, or I will, I'm using the royal way, I will ask you to take a stab, just giving us a working definition of consciousness that doesn't depend on a table asking itself, "Why am I here, what's going on?" And before we get to that, though, contrast and styles, perhaps, the integrated information theory seems to imply, and this is something I have zero familiarity with, so I could get this wrong, on consciousness as an emergent property. So things are simple, they get more complex, and when they reach a requisite level of

• 25:04Tim Ferriss?

  complexity, where the sum of the parts is greater than the whole, as you would expect it, the lights turn on. And maybe I'm misinterpreting that, but I'm wondering if that is accurate, if you, as someone who has looked at this very deeply through philosophical lenses, would agree with that, or does it start from the very beginning, with the smallest constituent parts? Does that make any sense?

• 25:32Speaker 03

  It does make a lot of sense, and here you're focusing on a key, big question here, you know, chicken or egg, which comes first? The physical world or consciousness? And, you know, the standard scientific assumption is, well, it's the physical universe that's first, you know, particles forming complex systems, brains, and then in some of the complex electrochemical signaling in brains, consciousness pops up, it's emergent, as you say. Whereas the panpsychist, actually...

• 26:06Speaker 03

  Turns that on its head and says, no, no, no. Consciousness, some story about very simple conscious entities is the foundational story. And in fact, physical reality emerges from that more basic story about consciousness. Now, you asked about integrated information theory, or they call it IIT for short. And I've always been a little bit unsure. You know, the key figures here are Giulio Tononi and Kristof Koch, who I mentioned earlier. We had a conference recently in Sweden, bringing together philosophers working on panpsychism and leading proponents of integrated information theory. And we really wrestled it out.

• 26:49Speaker 03

  And I actually was pleasantly surprised to realize we're actually on the complete same page as this. I think at least the leading proponents of integrated information theory, those neuroscientists, are like us philosophers of the view that it's consciousness that's fundamental, actually, and everything else flows from there. Everything else comes out of consciousness.

• 27:12Tim Ferriss?

  Is that a close cousin, or does it rhyme with what Max Planck, icon, German physicist, said so long ago? I have never had the full context of this quote. And this is as good a time as any, after you answer this, just to give us a working definition of consciousness that can be applied in the way you would like to apply it. So Max Planck, I regard consciousness as fundamental. I regard matter as derivative from consciousness. We cannot get behind consciousness. Everything that we talk about, everything that we regard as existing, postulates consciousness. So Max Planck, 1852 to 1947, Nobel Prize winning German physicist and the father of quantum theory.

• 27:52Tim Ferriss?

  Was he referring to more or less what you are discussing? Or did he say this in a different context?

• 28:02Speaker 03

  It's fascinating what you point to there. And it's not just Max Planck. It was a fairly widespread view among many physicists at the time. A colleague of mine who works on the history of philosophy tweeted something recently that was a quote from a physicist from the 1930s. Oh, God, I can't remember now who it was, saying, of course, all physicists think consciousness is fundamental now. It's just like, what? I think, you know, something happened in the post-war years where...

• 28:32Speaker 03

  This all went out the window and we moved to dominance of the, what we call materialism, roughly that the physical world is fundamental. We can leave it to the historians perhaps to work out what was going on there. But what was the interest of Max Planck? I mean, I should say I'm not an expert on Max Planck, but I suspect it might be something to do with quantum mechanics and some of the mysteries that have emerged since those early days of quantum mechanics. I mean, the weird thing about quantum mechanics is that if we just take the core bit of mathematics, what we call the Schrödinger equation, it seems to describe this weird world of what we call superpositions. And don't ask me what a superposition is because nobody knows,

• 29:17Speaker 03

  but it's something to do with, you know, the particle is not in this location and not in that location, but sort of in both and neither at the same time, or, you know, captured with the famous Schrödinger cat thought experiment, where if you just apply the Schrödinger equation, you'll find that the cat, before we open the box, the cat is living and dead, and there's many cats, or some of them living, some of them dead. But of course, that's not what we ever observe. Whenever we actually observe the particle, it's in a definite location. Whenever we actually open the box and look at the cat, if we were cruel enough to actually do the Schrödinger's cat experiment, we'd see a definitely living cat or a definitely dead

• 29:58Speaker 03

  cat. What on earth is going on there? And what the early pioneers of quantum mechanics said is, well, when you make an observation, things change. And a different bit of mathematics, what we call the Born rule, comes in and tells you what you're going to observe, or at least the probability of what you're going to observe. So it's a sort of bridging principle that takes you from this weird world of superpositions to the definite reality you're actually going to observe. And, you know, the early pioneers of quantum mechanics, like Niels Bohr,

• 30:30Speaker 03

  They didn't want you to ask questions about that. In fact, they hated Niels Bohr. You know, people talk about him, the people who knew him, just say he was this incredibly charismatic figure. People compared him to Jesus or Socrates, but he also ruled like a communist dictator in crushing opposition. If you ask questions about what is going on in reality to make quantum mechanics make sense, your career would be over, right? They didn't want you asking those questions. But, you know, one answer that some people reached in the 1960s Nobel Prize winning quantum pioneer Wigner, well, maybe it's consciousness that's making the difference, right? Maybe that's what's the difference between before you're observing the particle and

• 31:15Speaker 03

  it's in many locations and when you observe it, or before you open the box to see what's going on with the cat. It's the interaction of consciousness that changes reality from this wacky world of superpositions to a definite reality. And that's been somewhat neglected over the years, but actually, some friends of mine, David Chalmers, who I mentioned, and Kelvin McQueen, have actually taken that view and explored it in rigorous detail. They don't necessarily think it's true, but there's value in just analytically exploring this position, laying it out rigorously, looking at the pros and cons. So maybe that natural connection between consciousness and quantum mechanics was something to do with it, but I'm not totally sure.

• 32:04Tim Ferriss?

  Just a quick thanks to one of our sponsors and we'll be right back to the show. This episode is brought to you by AG1, the daily foundational nutritional supplement that supports whole body health. I do get asked a lot what I would take if I could only take one supplement. And the true answer is invariably AG1. It simply covers a ton of bases. I usually drink it in the mornings and frequently take their travel packs with me on the road. So what is AG1? AG1 is a science driven formulation of vitamins, probiotics, and whole food sourced nutrients. In a single scoop, AG1 gives you support for the brain, gut, and immune system. Take advantage of this exclusive offer for you, my dear podcast listeners, a free one-year supply of liquid vitamin D plus five travel packs with your subscription.

• 32:49Tim Ferriss?

  Simply go to drinkag1.com/tim. That's the number one, drinkag1.com/tim for a free one-year supply of liquid vitamin D plus five travel packs with your first subscription purchase. Learn more at drinkag1.com/tim.

• 33:09Tim Ferriss?

  We go down a number of different paths from here, of course. What is a good placeholder definition of consciousness for the purposes of how you've been using it in the context of panpsychism?

• 33:25Speaker 03

  The way the word consciousness is standardly used, I think in both science and philosophy, it just means subjective experience. Your consciousness is just what it's like to be you. So, you know, right now, you're having a, an auditory experience of my voice speaking to you, visual experience of the room around you. You know, if you pay attention, you'll notice the subtle tactile sensations of the chub beneath your body. This is just all part of what it's like to be you, and that's all we mean by consciousness. So now we can start to see that it make a little bit more sense that this could exist in very simple forms,

• 34:10Speaker 03

  because we're not necessarily talking about conceptual understanding or awareness of your own existence. We're just talking about experience. And, you know, maybe bedbugs could have experience, maybe something even simpler could have very, very simple forms of experience.

• 34:26Tim Ferriss?

  Thank you. And if people want to impress or confuse their friends at the next cocktail party, could they call those things qualia? Would that be a word they should throw around perhaps? Or qualia, a different thing entirely?

• 34:38Speaker 03

  No, no, that's the philosopher's lingo, I suppose, to mean, I guess, the qualities we encounter in conscious experience. And some people think that's really at the heart of the challenge here. The colors, the sounds, the smells, the taste. Consciousness seems to involve rich qualities, you know, the smell of coffee, the taste of mint, the deep red of a sunset. And maybe it's that.

• 35:08Speaker 03

  That physical science struggles with so much because physical science since Galileo has aimed to be purely quantitative, purely mathematical, purely objective and third personal. And so it's hard to see how you can bridge the explanatory gap between that purely quantitative world of physics and physical science and this subjective qualitative world of consciousness. And in fact, one final thing, physical science kicked off with Galileo taking consciousness outside of the domain of science for this precise reason. Cause he thought correctly, I think you can't capture those qualities in purely

• 35:51Speaker 03

  mathematical language. If we want mathematical science, we've got to take consciousness out. And I think that's really, I mean, this is my book, Galileo's Error. I think that's really at the root of our current predicaments of consciousness. We need to find a way of bringing together what Galileo separated 400 years ago.

• 36:08Tim Ferriss?

  This may be a naive question, but if we can explore quantum mechanics in mathematical form, and if we move from kind of Newtonian billiard balls to quantum mechanics, if quantum mechanical effects, at least in part, explain consciousness, it's a big if, I suppose, but if, couldn't we then reincorporate it into mathematics? Or do you think that's a fool's errand?

• 36:40Speaker 03

  I mean, you're making the case, I suppose, that the materialist will want to make the person who thinks, no, no, we can do this. I mean, I suppose everyone agrees, we haven't done it yet. We haven't got even the beginnings. We haven't got even the beginnings of an explanation of how electrochemical signaling can somehow make a feeling. But yeah, I mean, I think a lot of people inspired by the, the success of physical science think, come on, let's, we can get there in the end. We just need to keep pushing at this. But I suppose that's why I think we do need to reflect maybe on the intellectual philosophical starting points of science with Galileo.

• 37:25Speaker 03

  This moment when Galileo.

• 37:28Speaker 03

  Kicked things off by taking consciousness out.

• 37:32Tim Ferriss?

  How did Galileo strip consciousness out? Was it incidental? Was it very deliberate? Because it was just like, okay, this is the misbathing kid in the classroom. We need to put him in the corner. How was that done? What was the error, so to speak?

• 37:48Speaker 03

  Galileo wanted, and this was such a revolutionary innovation, wanted science to be just purely mathematical, that had never been done before. But he understood that the problem is the qualities we seem to encounter in our experience, the colors, the sounds, the smells and the tastes. So he said, you know, how do we get rid of them? You can't capture them in mathematics. You can't, I mean, you can capture a lot, right? You can capture with color experience. You can divide up color into the dimensions of hue, saturation and brightness, right? And you can map out a three dimensional space there. But you can never convey to a blind from birth neuroscientist with that sort of information,

• 38:33Speaker 03

  the redness of red, right? You know, what it's like to see red. Actually, there's a great neuroscientist, Knut Norby, the late Knut Norby, he's passed away now, who was an expert color scientist who had cones missing from his eyes. So he could only see black and white and shades of gray. And he talked in wonder, he was interested in the philosophy, talked in wonderful, rich ways about how he understood the the structure of color experience, but he couldn't quite get at the the colors, the qualities themselves. So Galileo said, right, well, we need that to be outside of the scientific domain. So what he said, he stripped the physical world of its qualities.

• 39:14Speaker 03

  He said, you know, the colors, they're not really in the objects, you know, this Batman mug I've got here, you know, the the blueness and the yellowness, that's not really on the surface of the cup. That's in the conscious experience of the observer looking at it, or the the spiciness isn't really inside the curry. It's in the experience, the conscious experience of the person eating the curry. So he strips the physical world of all these colors and sounds and smells, tastes. Where are they? They're in the soul, right? They're in the soul. That's outside of science. And once he'd stripped the qualities away. You've pre-reigned to capture everything else in mathematics. Now, that was a good move because it was the start of mathematical physics and it's led

• 39:58Speaker 03

  to incredible technology and consensus on this body of information. But I think we're in a period of history where it's gone so well. People now think, that's everything. We've found the way forward. But we need to remember it's gone so well because it was given a limited focus, because consciousness was put outside of the domain of science. So I think if Galileo were to time travel to the present day and hear about these challenges of explaining consciousness in the terms of physical science, it's, of course, you can't do that. I designed physical science to exclude consciousness. If you want to bring consciousness back in the scientific story, we need to rethink those foundations.

• 40:41Speaker 03

  We need to bring together what Galileo separated. And I think that's what panpsychism gives us a way of doing. It's not telling us to do science differently. It's telling us to have a more expansive scientific method that brings consciousness back into the story.

• 40:55Tim Ferriss?

  Oh, I want to explore that last part. And I would just say, I mean, for folks listening, and please excuse me, I'm operating way above my pay grade here, so I'm probably going to make mistakes. But Newtonian physics, for instance, works fantastically well for so many things. But once you have quantum mechanics introduced, it becomes very clear that it's an excellent toolkit, but it doesn't have a complete range of applications, let's just say. And if you talk to any good doctor, I don't know if this joke exists in, it's not really a joke, I suppose, but sort of a philosophical, epistemological quip, which is, you know, 50% of what we know is wrong, we just don't know which 50%. If you talk to any really good doctor, they'll tell you that.

• 41:39Tim Ferriss?

  So there's no reason to believe that we have anything approaching complete understanding of the physical world through the tools that we have available. How do you, you said, expanding, if I'm recalling correctly, sort of expanding the scope of science to include panpsychism. Do you have any thoughts on how that might be done?

• 41:59Speaker 03

  I think, come back to this question of, we just need to explore different explanatory projects. For many decades now, we've been pursuing the following project, trying to explain conscious experience in terms of utterly Non-conscious processes in the brain. And that project, despite a lot of time and energy and money, has gone precisely nowhere. Which is not to say the science of the brain has gone nowhere. We've made incredible progress. But on that particular question of how electrochemical signalings on the brain could make a feeling, you know, we haven't even got the beginnings. So the panpsychist says, well, let's just try it upside down.

• 42:44Speaker 03

  Let's try the reverse of that explanatory project. You know, we start with consciousness. Can we get physical reality out of that? And I just think it's turned out that that's a much more fruitful explanatory project. I think actually the mysteries have been solved essentially. And I think the, a lot of the resistance is, it just kind of feels weird. It takes time to adjust to these things. But look, you just, I would just say, just contrast these two explanatory projects, right? Starting with physical science, trying to get consciousness out. Starting with consciousness, trying to get physical reality out, which works. And I think the latter, we've just made much more progress on it.

• 43:24Tim Ferriss?

  You know, I was just doing a little bit of searching on perplexity for people who are interested, which AI tool I am using, which tends to focus a lot on avoiding or minimizing hallucination. I thought you were metaphorically referring to front and back of the brain when you were discussing how your philosophical beliefs or what would we even call this sort of philosophical undergirding would affect your scientific exploration or interpretation. But I put in question, what do neuroscientists believe is the neuroanatomical seat of consciousness? And the first thing that pops up, so IIT is here, integrated information theory,

• 44:06Tim Ferriss?

  but global neuronal workspace theory, man, they could use some branding on that, but that's okay. GNWT, this theory championed by Dr. Stanislas Dahin, I'm probably pronouncing that incorrectly, suggests that consciousness arises from the integration of sensory information in the frontal parts of the brain. The front of the brain acts as a sketchpad where sensory signals are combined with memories and emotions, and this information is then broadcast across the brain. IIT posits that consciousness emerges from a grid-like interconnection of neurons at the back of the brain.

• 44:37Tim Ferriss?

  And it goes on and on. And then there are many other theories. The thalamus and its interaction with the cerebral cortex, the cephalotemporal area, the clostrum, that one has come up a bit with neuroscientists I've spoken to at a few universities. Thin sheet of neurons connected to the neocortex, okay. Now, what do you think of the, let's put IAT aside for a second, but just this general pursuit, the pursuit of some neuroanatomical seat of consciousness, because the answers we get are only going to be as good as our questions. And while science is excellent scientific method for testing hypotheses, doesn't always give you a great set of tools for generating the best or better questions.

• 45:20Tim Ferriss?

  So do you feel like this is worth pursuing? Or is there something that scientists have as a blind spot that perhaps dooms this question from the very outset? The neuroanatomical seat of consciousness?

• 45:36Speaker 03

  Absolutely, you know, we need the science. We're not going to make progress on consciousness without science. And what you've pointed to is a really important debate. I mean, maybe just touch on another way of seeing, you know, why this is so hard to make progress on. And the reason is consciousness is not publicly observable. I can't look inside your brain and see your feelings and experiences. I can't look inside a fish and see, you know, it's, does it have feelings? Because, and this is leads to all sorts of ethical problems. I mean, what you can do, if you're dealing with a human being, is you can ask them, right?

• 46:17Speaker 03

  You can, while you're scanning their brain, maybe you can stimulate a bit of the brain. So what did that feel? And that's really essentially the tool for doing the scientific task of trying to.

• 46:29Speaker 03

  Mirror together the invisible world of consciousness and the visible world of the brain. It's very hard, but that's what we try to do. But really, I think that's where the limit is with science in regard to consciousness, because consciousness is not publicly observable. That is all you can do. It's very important, but that is all you can do. Try to get those correlations in the human case and then try as best you can to extrapolate to the non-human case. But that will always leave open the why question. Why does brain activity go along with consciousness? Why should brain activity have anything to do with consciousness? And

• 47:14Speaker 03

  I think at that point, you need to turn to the philosophy and just look at the various possibilities that we've discussed. Well, maybe the physical world is fundamental and consciousness emerges. Maybe consciousness is fundamental and physical reality emerges. Maybe they're both radically different. This is what's called dualism. Maybe consciousness is in the soul and that's just separate from the body and the brain. And this has actually, for what it's worth, been the most popular theory in human history of consciousness, you know, that consciousness is somehow separate. But the scientific data on consciousness, important as it is, is just neutral on all those possibilities. This is what I'm so passionate about getting across to people. And I understand why people find that frustrating

• 47:57Speaker 03

  and they think, no, I can't be doing an experiment, you know. I mean, maybe you should say, well, we just don't know. All we know is the correlations and we just don't know. Or we can try and do some philosophy. We can try and see if, can we evaluate these different options, maybe in terms of simplicity, Occam's razor, maybe that will get rid of the soul, or how well their explanatory aims have gone. And I think when we do that, panpsychism just looks more plausible. I've talked a bit long there. If I could say one more thing about how we make progress. I think it might get to the point where what we need to do is fragment the discipline a little bit into

• 48:41Speaker 03

  Communities of scientists and philosophers, that is to say, scientists doing experiments under certain philosophical assumptions. And that's really, actually, with IIT and global workspace theory, that is kind of already going on, but not explicit. But maybe we just have to do that and see what bears fruit. You know, some neuroscientists I know don't like that and they think, "Oh, we're not, we're not going to be taken serious as credible science, we won't get funding." I feel that. But unfortunately, if you're going to deal with consciousness, for all the reasons we've discussed, it's not publicly observable, science was set up from taking it out the picture, you just need to do some philosophy.

• 49:21Speaker 03

  So maybe what we need to do is just get society to take philosophy more seriously and to see the role that has to play in the project of finding out about reality. And then I think we'll make progress on consciousness.

• 49:33Tim Ferriss?

  So if people want to get really squirrely and explore consciousness as something perhaps non-localized or not limited to the brain, they can read a collection of different writings called Mind Beyond Brain, which was edited by David Presti. Now, if David Presti were just playing singing bowls and swinging copal around the public square, walking around in rags, it would be one thing. But he's a neuroscientist at the University of California at Berkeley, where he taught in the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology for nearly 20 years, still teaches and also has worked as a clinical psychologist in the treatment of addiction and PTSD and

• 50:15Tim Ferriss?

  so on at the Department of Veteran Affairs, Medical San Francisco and SF. Very interesting, not all chapters, in my opinion, are strong, but a few will definitely provoke some very bizarre questions. So that's something people can dig into if they'd like. Let me ask you about the hypothetical situation, which is if we made another bet. So let's say that you bet me, you're like, you know, 20 years from now, we're going to figure it out. Cradle wine, your choice. It's like, fantastic. And it gets figured out. We somehow determine, maybe it's with the help of quantum computing and harnessing the power from other universes. By the way, if people haven't listened to the discussion

• 50:59Tim Ferriss?

  of quantum computing I had with Steve Jervisson quite a while back now, go back and listen to that if you think what I just said is strange. It is. But let's say it gets figured out. What is the payoff? This might sound also like a very dumb question. Is it trying just to resolve some deep angst and the not knowing as it relates to consciousness? Or is there more to the potential payoff if we were to somehow figure it out?

• 51:24Speaker 03

  You know, I actually think there are very important, practical, ethical concerns here. I mean, one thing we've touched on slightly is animal consciousness. Which animals are conscious? And, I mean, actually, the direction of travel has been going, more and more things are conscious as time has gone on. There was recently a letter written by dozens of neuroscientists arguing that we need to at least take seriously the possibility that insects are conscious. I mean, there was a time people didn't think babies were conscious and used to do quite horrible things on babies.

• 52:00Tim Ferriss?

  Surgery without anesthesia. God. And that was not that long ago. This is not the 1400s we're talking about.

• 52:07Speaker 03

  You know, it's only recently people are thinking birds and fish are conscious. So, you know, us plant psychists have taken it all the way and we're just waiting for everyone to catch up. I'm being slightly ironic. But, you know, plants, I don't think people are at the stage necessarily where they are. Well, there are some bio-psychists who think, well, they're not plant psychists, but they think all living things are conscious. But we have learned incredible things about plant intelligence, that plants can be subject to conditioned learning, which was incredibly surprising, that the extent to which...

• 52:41Speaker 03

  Trees communicate onto the ground and share information and between species, there's cooperation and sharing of food and nutrients and there's just some incredible buzzing community beneath the ground. So I think, you know, as we learn more about animals and plants, it is leading people to ascribe consciousness more and more widespread. But look, I mean, this is a very serious ethical question, which things are conscious? People often think I'm going to be a vegan, but it makes it harder if you're a panpsychist. If you're not a panpsychist, if you're a bio-psychist, you've got a nice, easy ethical dividing line. You know, plants aren't conscious, I just won't eat things that are conscious. But I think trees and plants are conscious, you know, and I've got to eat something.

• 53:26Speaker 03

  So it just, it really, there really is ethical issues here. The other one is people in comas who we can't communicate with in the normal way at least. Are they conscious? Can they hear us? You know, I mean, one of them, fascinating was maybe 10 or 15 years ago now, that scientists were able to communicate with somebody in a coma through asking yes or no questions and saying, you know, for the yes question, I can't remember the details now, you know, think of playing tennis and then they observed, they scanned the brain to see if the motor region was activated and communicated with someone through scanning their brain and found out that they did have meaningful thought.

• 54:09Speaker 03

  So, I mean, those are the two big ethical questions, I suppose. But look, I don't think we should underplay questions that just don't have practical significance, but are part of what it means to be a human being in the sense of the noble project of trying to have our best guess as to what reality is like. I think human life isn't just about, you know, building bridges, curing disease, working on the economy, as important as those things are. I think we want to know, what is this world we're living in? How do we fit that into our, our own understanding of our meaning and purpose in this life? And so, you know, consciousness is important for that purpose too.

• 54:51Tim Ferriss?

  And there's also oftentimes practicality on the further side of something that seems impractical, or at least not immediately practical. That happens all the time in science, happens all the time in medicine, all the time in pharmaceutical development.

• 55:08Speaker 03

  I could give you two good examples of that, actually.

• 55:10Tim Ferriss?

  Please.

• 55:11Speaker 03

  Of where blue sky thinking has gone in. Well, the Reverend Thomas Bayes was annoyed by the atheist David Hume in the 18th century with his argument against miracles, that we should never trust miracles because it's always going to be more likely that it was deceit or error rather than a break in the laws of nature. Thomas Bayes, Reverend Thomas Bayes, was like, what's going on? And he wrestled with this and he came up with a little bit of mathematics that we now call Bayes' theorem.

• 55:41Tim Ferriss?

  Yeah.

• 55:42Speaker 03

  You know, which is our core mathematical way of understanding evidence. It was very important in tracking the COVID pandemic. It informs a huge bit of neuroscience we call predictive processing. Another quick example, I mean, Bertrand Russell, my hero, and Gottlieb Frager were wrestling with the very abstract question of can we reduce mathematics to logic? Why the hell would you be worried about that? But anyway, can we just explain all of maths away? Philosophers worry about numbers. What the hell are numbers? Where are numbers? You know, Plato, back in the dawn of Western philosophy, Plato thought numbers are really out there. Some philosophers think, I don't, I don't want to believe in this magical world of

• 56:27Speaker 03

  numbers, platonic heaven. Maybe we can just get it all reduced to logic. And they wrestled with this and it didn't really work out, but they came up with predicate logic, which is, you know, been hugely important in computer science and, and God, it's huge, loads of areas of science. So, yeah. So look, we, we need to be, to worry about just focusing on the practical questions. You know, we need space for blue sky thinking and trying things out because you don't know where it's going to end up.

• 56:56Tim Ferriss?

  I'm going to come back to Bertrand Russell, which I was planning on hitting regardless. But first, I thought we could explore a little bit your experience with virtual reality. And this was in the seven pages that you sent to me, some other reading related to the present moment, which we don't have to go to in depth, but specifically the experience you had with VR. If you could just speak to that, because part of my hope with conversations like this is just to point out to people how.

• 57:33Tim Ferriss?

  What we take for granted as the ordinary is so fucking crazy on so many levels that it's worth taking a pause every once in a while to revisit it. And I thought your experience was a very eloquent way of putting that into perspective.

• 57:50Speaker 03

  Thank you. Yeah, this was a funny one. I suppose just, you know, when you first try VR goggles, it's just like, oh, my God, this is world and I can interact with it. And unfortunately, I was with my two little kids and they wanted their turn. And obviously, I only have like five minutes and I was like, it's not fair. Why do they get to do so that I was thinking, I was just, I wasn't gonna have another go because my kids are playing with us. Oh, back to boring reality. And it suddenly dawned on me, actually, normal reality, even this kind of mundane living room I was sitting in, is so much richer than the best VR we have, right?

• 58:32Speaker 03

  You could, you know, the subtlety of touching a leaf or stroking a carpet or breathing the air, if you pay attention to the air going in your nose. And, you know, I mean, there's just so much richness in every present moment. The only problem is, for some reason, I don't know, it's something to do with evolution, probably, us humans are sort of set up to get bored of it very quickly. And we just want the next thing that we want to, get me a Netflix drama, get me a drink to just sort of drown my sorrows. And so I just think that that really dawned on me in a deep way.

• 59:09Speaker 03

  The importance of just trying to calm that restless boredom and just get back to the richness that the present moment has to offer. I just want my kids, actually, I didn't say this in the pages you kindly read, but I found actually, I've got a four year old and an eight year old. Actually, playing with kids can be kind of meditative, like a spiritual. Experiment. I mean, I've got a friend, I remember a colleague when they first had kids and they said, it's really boring, isn't it, playing with kids? And you know, in a sense it is, but, you know, at first it's boring playing role play, playing, one of my kids wanted to play teachers

• 59:51Speaker 03

  all the time, but, and it's boring at first and you wanna, I wanna do something else, I wanna do something more. But then if you just bear with it and you let the restlessness calm and then you absorb in it and you see, you know, the wonder of the weird way the thinking and the strange expressions and their unusual behavior and the richness of the present moment. And it's just a different way of thinking about the value of meditation or mindfulness or just trying to calm yourself in the present moment. That's the beginning of happiness, I think, isn't it? Just getting yourself settled in the present moment.

• 1:00:25Tim Ferriss?

  All right. As promised, Bertrand Russell, and this is gonna take us into some fun territory, I suspect. Why is Bertrand Russell one of your heroes? And maybe you could speak to William James as well and answer that same question.

• 1:00:44Speaker 03

  Yeah, Bertrand Russell, I think of Russell as the Darwin of consciousness. I think he's in very important work in the 1920s, he sort of solved all the mysteries and, and it got actually sadly forgotten about for a long time. And it's only in the last 10 or 15 years, it's, it's really been rediscovered. Not that it was literally forgotten about, but it's been examined again. And this has led to this new wave of panpsychist thinking in contemporary philosophy. Another figure to throw in from the same period, the 1920s, is Arthur Eddington, who was incidentally the first scientist to experimentally confirm Einstein's general theory of relativity. That made Einstein an overnight celebrity. And it was a big moment,

• 1:01:29Speaker 03

  actually, it was because it was, was it between the wars, I think, and it was an English experimental scientist confirming the theory of a German or a Swiss German scientist. And a Swiss German scientist not only confirming their theory, but their theory that overturned a couple of hundred years of Newton, right? Newton had the theory of gravity. Eddington's observation showed that actually Einstein's slightly more nuanced theory did better than Newton's. So anyway, they worked together and they thought about these questions around consciousness in a really fascinating way. And without wanting to get into too much of the technicalities, I think their essential insight was that

• 1:02:11Speaker 03

  physical science doesn't really tell us what matter is. Now, when I first heard that, I honestly thought, this is ridiculous. What are you talking about? You know, you read physics, you get this rich story about the nature of space and time and matter. But their point was, well, of course, important and rich as that is, ultimately at base, physics just gives us mathematical structure. And so in a sense, physics doesn't care what matter is, it doesn't care what physical reality is, it just cares what its mathematical structure is. If you get the mathematical structure, that's all physics cares about. And, you know, Stephen Hawking famously captured this on the last page of A Brief History

• 1:02:52Speaker 03

  of Time, when he said, "Even the final theory of physics won't tell us what breathes fire into the equations and makes a universe for them to describe." So really, I mean, the way we conventionally think about consciousness, people tend to think, oh, we know what matter is, we know what the brain is, but we don't know what consciousness is, we don't know what this weird consciousness thing. Russell said, it's precisely the other way around. We know what consciousness is by being conscious. You know what pain is when you feel it? It's the brain, it's physical reality. We don't know what it is, we just know it's abstract mathematical structure. We don't know what fills out that mathematical structure. And so building on these insights, I don't know how much you want to get into this, building

• 1:03:37Speaker 03

  on these insights, philosophers have worked out ways of, if we started with the postulation of networks of simple conscious entities, so long as through their interactions, they had the right patterns, the right mathematical structures, we'd get physics out of that. We could get physics out of consciousness. I think we know, from Russell, I think we know that can be done. We don't know if we can get consciousness out of physics. But we know we can get physics out of consciousness. Why are we still banging our head against a brick wall thinking, you know, how can we get consciousness out of physical stuff? When does it, we know it can be done the other way around. We've made sense of that.

• 1:04:20Speaker 03

  Let's just at least run with that as an option. I know it feels a bit weird, but you know, that's just a cultural thing.

• 1:04:29Tim Ferriss?

  Where does William James fit in to your life? And why such an influence?

• 1:04:35Speaker 03

  I think even more than Russell, William James is my big hero. I think just something about his intellectual character, I think. If you read James, he feels like someone in the present moment. He's just so up to date and sharp and reasonable in his thinking. But I mean, on all sorts of areas, I mean, he wrote wonderful things on panpsychism. In terms of the challenges to panpsychism, actually, the big discussed challenge of panpsychism, you know, had a little conscious things come together to make big conscious things. This has become known as the combination problem. But William James is actually the first person wrestling with this. I also like his, you know, the stuff he wrote on religion.

• 1:05:19Speaker 03

  You know, people talk about religion, they talk about Pascal's wager. It's interesting Pascal's wager, but you need to read James if you're interested in that kind of stuff. His great paper, The Will to Believe, he later thought, I think rightly should have been called The Right to Believe. And he was challenging this idea that a contemporary of his Clifford put forward, but later Bertrand Russell on the other side put forward, you know, that in terms of belief, you follow the evidence, you, all you need to do is follow the evidence and you've got to strictly, anything beyond the evidence, you can't go for. And James reflected, they said, well, look, it's a bit complicated, you know? The worry with going over the evidence is, well, you might believe false things. But there's another risk, isn't there? You might not believe true things.

• 1:06:03Speaker 03

  To some extent, he tried to justify, to some extent, we can tentatively, in certain limited circumstances, where there is uncertainty, where our rational argumentation and experiments can't settle matters. Maybe it can be rational to choose to believe. And he made a real case for that. And it was absolutely fascinating. And you appreciate you're taking a risk and you know, you're not making an intellectual error because you know, you're taking a risk. You know, you're going beyond the evidence. But you're in your right mind, prepared to take that risk. It's just a beautiful discussion and all sorts of wonderful analogies and explorations. Everyone should read William James. He's a patron saint of great intellectual thinking.

• 1:06:47Tim Ferriss?

  If people needed to start with one, or if they were only going to read one, where would you have them start? I would suppose that the most recognizable of his writing, for at least an American audience, would probably be The Varieties of Religious Experience. But would you start there or would you have people start somewhere else?

• 1:07:05Speaker 03

  The one I just mentioned, Will to Believe, if that sounded interesting to you, is fairly readable. But yeah, the other, I mean, The Varieties of Religious Experience, that is still one of the best explorations of mystical experiences. The chapter on mystical experiences, you know, a lot of it's a psychological study in an attempt to define mystical experiences. And his definition still stands to this day. But at the end, actually, it's interesting. He says, he asked the question, would it be rational to trust a mystical experience? Suppose I'm having this mystical experience. It seems to me there's this higher form of consciousness at the root of all things. Would it be rational to trust that?

• 1:07:48Speaker 03

  I think many of you would say, well, no, it's just something funny going on in your brain, you know, it could be a delusion. But James says, well, We all think it's okay to trust our ordinary sensory experiences. But, you know, that could be a delusion. We could be in the Matrix. This could all be a dream. And you could say, well, we can test our senses, but only by using your senses. So it's kind of circular. So all knowledge has to start with just a decision to trust your experience. It's a sort of double standard. If you say it's okay to trust ordinary sensory experiences, fallible as they are, but it's not okay for someone having a mystical experience to trust what that seems to be telling

• 1:08:32Speaker 03

  them about reality. There's a sort of double standard. What justifies that? And, I mean, there's a big debate, but, you know, it is a really important and challenging point in foundational thinkings about knowledge.

• 1:08:45Tim Ferriss?

  Highly recommend William James. Also, if people want an adjunct to that, there's a book called The Varieties of Spiritual Experiences, the newer book, 21st Century Research and Perspectives by a scientist named David Yaden, Y-A-D-E-N, out of Johns Hopkins. And that is also worth taking a gander at if you are particularly interested in mystical experiences, what that means, and the different, I suppose, flavors of reality that can entail. Let's come back to Bertrand Russell. And the way I'm going to make this segue is I'm going to read something from your notes that you sent me as possible exploration for this conversation.

• 1:09:27Tim Ferriss?

  So your last book, Why, explored the middle ground between God and atheism. Now, I'm going to paraphrase this just to make a third person, or a second person, I guess. You came out as a heretical Christian, which caused a big reaction, a heated discussion within the philosophical community, the traditional Christians saying you weren't really a Christian because you didn't have the correct beliefs, quote unquote, and atheist philosophers saying that you'd lost your mind. Okay. And Bertrand Russell has a book called Why I Am Not a Christian. And I'm wondering, you can edge into this however you would like, but I'm curious what you think he gets right or wrong in that book, since you seem very familiar with his work.

• 1:10:08Tim Ferriss?

  And then I would love for you just to explain what it means for you to be a heretical Christian.

• 1:10:14Speaker 03

  Maybe I could just do those the other way around, because it might Sure. Sort of help to see where I'm coming. I mean, this has been quite a journey, really. I didn't think I would return to religion. I mean, I was raised Catholic, actually, you know, going to church every week. I was a terrible altar boy. I was always forgetting to ring the bells at the right time. And anyway, but by the time I was 14, I decided God didn't exist and I refused to get confirmed, upsetting my grandmother. My mum sent me to see the priest who tried Pascal's wager on me, but it didn't work. And anyway, you know, I spent the next 30 years an atheist. But I think I've always been a spiritual person, you know, I've always talked about mystical

• 1:10:57Speaker 03

  experience in some sense, had a sense that there's a deeper reality at the core of things. But, you know, I engaged with it in my own way through engagement with nature, meditation, yoga classes, you know, and so on. I was a part of the ever growing grouping of spiritual but not religious. More recently, I suppose, I guess, at least for me, I've come to see the value of the things I had in that religious community in my upbringing, you know, that I think, for all its faults, you know, I think religion has a unique way of bringing the community

• 1:11:36Speaker 03

  together, you know, through rituals that mark the changing of the seasons and the big moments of life, you know, birth, coming of age, marriage, death, through rich tradition, you know, going back thousands of years. And so like, I suppose at some point, it seemed to me that being spiritual but not religious, and you know, I'm just talking for myself now, was starting to feel a bit, maybe a bit lonely, a bit unstructured, almost aimless. And I guess I've come to think over time that, and this is what my new book I've just started this week is on, there are ways of engaging with traditional religion, maybe

• 1:12:16Speaker 03

  get into, that avoid some of the real worries that people have with religion, like dogmatic certainties, or, you know, things you could go into, but which also allow you to gain some benefits, like.

• 1:12:32Speaker 03

  A community, structured practice, a rich tradition. And you know, I suppose what I'm interested in is just, I've come to find that works for me. And I suppose I'd just like to raise that possibility for others. So I'm not here saying, oh, this is the one true faith you've got to believe. I'm just saying, look, I'm interested in different experiments in living. And I think there's a way of engaging with religion that perhaps not everyone is fully aware of. And so that's what I'm trying to do there. But anyway, Bertrand Russell, yeah, I've talked more about this sort of personal things there. But on the intellectual matters, you know, there's this bloody perennial debate between believers and atheists, you know,

• 1:13:17Speaker 03

  which five people, like, whose side are you on? Richard Dawkins or the Pope, you know, who's right? Which team are you on? And I I've just come to find over time, I think both sides of getting something right and something wrong. I think there's things, traditional believers in God, at least the, you know, Western gods struggle to explain, like the horrific suffering. Why the hell would God allow cancer and earthquakes and all that? I think there's also things that atheists, traditional atheists struggle to explain. One thing I've focused a lot on recent work in my Why book is the fine tuning of physics for life. The surprising discovery that for life to be possible,

• 1:13:58Speaker 03

  certain numbers in physics had to fall in an incredibly narrow range, such that it's actually incredibly improbable that a universe like ours would have the right numbers for life just by chance. You know, that's something it's hard to make sense of on a normal atheistic picture. So what I tried to do in the Why book really is just, but let's just have a think about middle ground options. Maybe there are elegant middle ground options that can avoid the difficulties on both sides. I'm now coming to Russell. You might think I'm like a politician dodging the question, but. Well, this fine tuning of physics for life wasn't there when Russell was alive. It's just since the seventies, eighties, I mean, the late nineties, the cosmological

• 1:14:42Speaker 03

  constant, which is to do with dark energy and the acceleration of the universe. That was only 1998, I think. So this just wasn't there for Russell. And I annoy people on X. I've really wound people up by saying that Bertrand Russell would probably believe in cosmic purpose now because he followed the evidence where it leads. But, you know, the evidence wasn't there in his day. And, uh, you know, but I think he would have followed that evidence. It's hard for human beings to do, isn't it? To sort of, you know, you get used to one thing and the evidence changes. And the economist Keynes, there's a famous incident. A journalist said to him, you didn't used to think that. And he said, well, when the facts change, I change my mind. What do you do, sir? That's really hard for human beings to do.

• 1:15:26Tim Ferriss?

  All right. So let's talk about Bertrand Russell following the evidence and cosmic purpose. Cause I want to explore this. I know very little about, I suppose, how you might describe cosmic purpose. And I would like to hear more. So when people hear you perhaps refer to the constants for life on earth, right? The 30 or so fundamental constants. I mean, there is an argument to be made that, well, life would only appear if these things existed, therefore yada, yada, yada. But we don't need to delve into that. What I'm curious about is when people hear you say that and that it is incredibly unlikely to happen by chance, they might take that to imply some type of primary mover, AKA

• 1:16:09Tim Ferriss?

  a god of some type. Does cosmic purpose require someone to be atheist, to believe in a god or gods?

• 1:16:22Speaker 03

  No, no. I mean, I wouldn't go for the very traditional idea of God as all knowing or powerful perfectly good, because then you've got the problem of suffering. I'm bothered by.

• 1:16:36Speaker 03

  What both sides struggle with, and this is why I annoy everybody, you know, because I'm annoying both sides of this debate. I think there are options, middle ground options, that can deal with the fine tuning in terms of some kind of cosmic purpose or goal directedness without going to the very traditional god and getting to suffering. So in the Why book, I explore a few different possibilities. One is maybe laws of nature with purposes built into them. So we don't have some kind of mind behind the universe setting things up. There's just a sort of fundamental tendency in reality towards certain goals, maybe

• 1:17:21Speaker 03

  the emergence of life. Now, this sounds a bit, in itself, a bit wacky and mystical, but actually, a couple of our most rigorous philosophers, Daniel Nolan and John Hawthorne, have actually given a very detailed, rigorous, mathematical account of what such a, what we call teleological laws, so telos from the Greek purpose, laws with purposes built into them, would look like. So I think like, it ends up being, you could just have a scientific proposal of just a different way of thinking about laws of nature. It's weird in a cultural sense, but that is one option.

• 1:18:01Speaker 03

  I mean, another option is something closer to the traditional god, but a tweak on it. I've explored the idea of a, maybe a god of limited powers, who's just not able to do whatever they want. And, you know, I think we could be quite precise about what those limitations might be to yield the world we find. Or the simulation hypothesis, Nick Bostrom's famous for exploring, and David Chalmers in his recent book, Reality Plus. You know, maybe we're in a computer simulation, and there's some random software engineer who set it all up. Very finally, I've talked too much already, the view I explore in most detail in the book is the idea that the universe itself is conscious, which again, sounds a bit extravagant

• 1:18:44Speaker 03

  at first, but actually, if you're already a panpsychist, I think that's already a plausible view. You already think perhaps that the universe is conscious because you think fields are the fundamental physical things. Then it's perhaps not too much of a step to think with this fundamental conscious thing might have certain goal-directed states, even if it's a very alien, strange mind, very different to us. I just think we need to just, we get stuck in these dichotomies. Let's just explore these different options.

• 1:19:17Tim Ferriss?

  So a question for you on the intersection of your childhood with where you are now, I suppose, or maybe the trajectory. How did you decide to become an atheist at age 14? Was it the omnipotent, omnibenevolent contradiction with suffering in the world? Was there something else that triggered it? How did you decide on that?

• 1:19:43Speaker 03

  I think it was a mix of things. Yeah, the problem of evil and suffering was part of it on the intellectual side. Also ethical things, you know, I thought Christianity had backward views on women and sexuality and, you know, a time I was questioning my sexuality. And also, I think, I mean, I think fundamentally, I just thought Christianity in particular was very unspiritual. You know, I thought Buddhism is spiritual, but Christianity is just about sort of doing what the old guy in the sky wants so you get to heaven. But I mean, what I've discovered more recently, and this is part of why I've returned to this slightly non-standard form of religion, engagement with religion, is the mystical

• 1:20:26Speaker 03

  traditions of Christianity, which have always been there, right back to the start, but are perhaps more prominent in the Eastern Orthodox Church, where there's less emphasis on sin. My childhood Catholic, it was all about sin. And but for the Eastern Orthodox Church, there's nothing to do with God wanting to find someone to punish for our sins. That's not a part of the picture at all. In fact, that was invented by the Protestant reformers 500 years ago. A lot of people in the US think that's the essence of Christianity. Anyway, but for the Eastern Orthodox Church, that it's the fundamental story is about God and the universe becoming one, entering into a deep state of unity. That's really

• 1:21:11Speaker 03

  the core of it. And I mean, this, I had nothing about in my Catholic upbringing, but it's something that deeply resonates with me. And, you know,

• 1:21:21Speaker 03

  Makes sense a lot of my deeper spiritual experiences. I suppose, you know, it's those elements of mysticism I thought were in just in Hinduism, Buddhism, but are actually present, not just in Christianity, but you know, you've got Kabbalah in Judaism, you've got Sufism in Islam. That's what I'm researching at the moment, these wonderful Islamic traditions. I'm reading a book, a classic book, looking at the exploration between Stoicism that I know you're interested in and Sufism in Islamic, that the mysticism of Islamic philosophy. So yeah, so I think there's always been that mystical component and a way of engaging that's, you know, less dogmatic and certain, maybe you don't know it's true, maybe it's something you hope is true, maybe you take it as a beautiful metaphor. There are these

• 1:22:06Speaker 03

  ways of doing it. And I think churches and synagogues would be a more interesting place if they were full of people, more full of people engaging with it in this way. I like, you know, I like conservatives. I don't hate conservatives and traditionalists. But I think there can be a natural balance of progressives and conservatives, you know, the conservatives saying, you know, let's not throw everything away too quickly. And the progressives saying, hold on, we need to update a bit. And in religion, it's gone a little bit too much dominated by traditionalists. And I think it would be nice if we mixed it up a bit. And that's what I'm trying to press in my current, the book I've just started.

• 1:22:43Tim Ferriss?

  We're going to come back to your deeper, some of your deeper spiritual experiences. I'm wondering if you could share one or two, but I also want to say that a lot of people listening or watching probably associate me with Stoic philosophy, Stoicism, but I actually have more books and more poetry related to Sufism in my house than anything related to Stoicism. I have quite a bit on Stoicism, but also sponsored a statue here in Austin in a statue garden. And this particular statue is of Saint Francis of Assisi. And we could talk about Merton. I mean, there are origin stories that involve mystical slash direct experience in.

• 1:23:25Tim Ferriss?

  Most, if not all, of the major traditions people listening would recognize. And the immortality key is actually quite an interesting read for people who haven't checked it out, Brian Murrescu. But let's come back to your deeper experiences. Are you willing to share one or two of those?

• 1:23:43Speaker 03

  Yeah, yeah, well, I'll have to get some recommendations from your own super. Let me think. I, I mean, I suppose what I've found, what I've been thinking recently is what I like about this eastern orthodox way of thinking about mystical experience is that it's very close to certain things we find in Hindu mysticism like Advaita Vedanta, but the end goal that you're aiming at still involves love and sociality. I mean, I was watching something by a very good Hindu mystic who I'm actually going

• 1:24:26Speaker 03

  to be in conversation with in a few months, talking about, you know, a metaphor that the ultimate goal is with the analogy of an ice cube melting in the ocean, you know, you lose your identity, you're sort of absorbed in the divine, right? Whereas in the eastern orthodox conception of Christianity, the ultimate goal is still, it involves unity, but still difference, right? It's unity with God, with other people. I mean, I suppose what I see reflected in the Eucharist and it's the sociality, a mystical sociality that is a deep sense of kind of binding people together and to something bigger.

• 1:25:10Speaker 03

  So I suppose that's part of what's really resonated with me. And this is not some big overwhelming mystical experience, but it's making sense of those.

• 1:25:22Speaker 03

  Experiences that have always been there at my more spiritual moments. I find actually that the soft light of first very early morning or dusk, I find somehow most spiritual. I don't know why that is. Making sense of these experiences. Actually, we're just, I mean, just one more thing. It was just Ash Wednesday this week, the start of Lent. It was. You know, I'm in an Anglican church where you get the ashes and it really touches me what they say when they say, remember that you are dust and to dust you shall return. I think what it does to me is, you know, I've had some worldly success in academia

• 1:26:07Speaker 03

  to an extent in public stuff. And I think at moment of that being done, I think it was maybe last year, I think I had a very vivid sense of how my sense of myself was getting a bit reliant on that and dependent on, you know, success and, you know, my sense of who I was. And that just being told, you know, kind of brought me a bit to tears that you are dust and to dust you. You know, and I think that's, I've been reading actually the great Christian mystic who was tried for heresy, Meister Eckhart. And reading about, you know, I always thought, I guess the focus on sin that was always from my childhood. I thought like, again, for Lent, you know, abstaining, I thought that's about

• 1:26:52Speaker 03

  sin and punishing yourself and you've got to feel sad. But the way Eckhart sees it is, and the way he interprets passages from the Bible about sacrifice, it's just about

• 1:27:05Speaker 03

  getting away from your reliance on these things, your sense of yourself, your sense of happiness, getting down to something more real and fundamental at the core. And so some of the ways in which through engaging with a rich tradition, I've delved deeper into and explored my spiritual experiences, I suppose.

• 1:27:26Tim Ferriss?

  So you said the next thirty years as an atheist, so it seems like you've in some form come back into the fold. Maybe you have some sunglasses and a fake mustache, but you've come back into the fold in some sense. What triggered that? What was the, I mean, maybe the straw that broke the camel's back isn't the right metaphor to use, but was there a conversation, a moment, a period of difficulty? What catalyzed that?

• 1:27:54Speaker 03

  I'd say again, it's as with leaving, it was a mixture of things. I could talk about the intellectual stuff we've already touched on, I suppose, was starting to think both sides of the god atheism debate of something right and something wrong and...

• 1:28:09Tim Ferriss?

  There's gotta be more to it, though. There's gotta be more like direct experience.

• 1:28:13Speaker 03

  That was the intellectual stuff. That was the intellectual stuff. And that's what led to my why book, which was earlier, at least when I wrote it, it was earlier to all this. But then on the spiritual level, well, I guess it's what I said learning more about, just from conversations with different kinds of Christian thinkers. Joanna Leidenhag is a young panpsychist theologian who writes on how panpsychism fits much better with a spiritual conception of reality. And actually, I should say there's a bit of a divide on this. Many panpsychists like David Chalmers, Luke Roloffs, Angela Mendelavici, a very secular atheist. I think Chalmers is a bit annoyed that I'm getting into religion. He's

• 1:28:55Speaker 03

  like, we're trying to get this taken serious science. You know, people are gonna think it's all just religion. But other panpsychists, Hedda Hassel-Merk, Itay Shani, do see a consonance with panpsychism. So learning about the mystical traditions, learning about these conceptions of God, where God and the universe are not totally distinct, I'm not even sure I want to use the word God, you know, but I've started now. Where there's

• 1:29:19Tim Ferriss?

  Trick you won that, yeah.

• 1:29:20Speaker 03

  Maybe there's some overlap, maybe like a Venn diagram, you know, there's God on one side, us on the other, and there's sort of overlap in the middle. I interpret Meister Eckhart as... Holding something like that, maybe that's why he got in trouble. So that was part of it. And I don't know. So I mean, one final thing, I don't know how much of interest this is, but I mean, I always have problems with the resurrection because I want not, it's not just there being miracles, although that's part of it. You know, my answer to why there's suffering is if there is a God in whatever sense, they can't do anything about it, right? Or it's just, there isn't a God who's letting that happen. But if there's a God who can raise people from the dead, you know, then we're

• 1:30:01Speaker 03

  back to, well, why don't you do that more often? You know, but anyway, I was reading one of my favorite biblical scholars, guy called Dale Allison, who's a wonderful free thinker. He's always exploring both sides of a position and ending up places he wouldn't like to be, maybe on a certain point of biblical interpretation, he'd like to be more liberal and he ends up having a slightly more. Anyway, but he's got a wonderful recent book on the resurrection, exploring non-standard versions of the resurrection were, for example, that the resurrection experiences of the first Christians were visionary, almost mystical experiences, rather than seeing

• 1:30:43Speaker 03

  and touching a body. And I was debating that this, it's been a busy week. I was debating that with, on Wednesday with, I don't know if you've heard of William Lane Craig, who is perhaps one of the biggest, most influential Christian philosophers, but he's very, very, very, very traditional. You know, I mean, if you're not Christian, you're going to hell, you know, very traditional. And we had a lovely, very, very fiery debate this week, where, as I knew he would be, he studies, his debating opponents, and he, he was straight in there. Panpsychism is, you know, incoherent, unscientific. This view of the resurrection is un-historical, doesn't make sense. But anyway,

• 1:31:26Speaker 03

  we had a, I responded in kind of, that's not out yet, but maybe it will be out. But, but yeah, so I suppose it was those three things, there's been a bit long-winded. It was the intellectual stuff, that these middle ground options between God and atheism, it was the spiritual stuff, discovering these mystical traditions that resonate.

• 1:31:45Speaker 03

  With me deeply, it was this weird view of the resurrection. It was discovering, actually, there's been a big movement in philosophy of religion, thinking about the nature of faith, reading, actually, Karen Armstrong, a wonderful historian of religion, who has argued that this focus on belief being so important in religion is like a modern corruption. She traces it back, actually, if we look at the word pistis in the New Testament that we translate as belief, it actually doesn't mean belief in the modern sense, it has connotations of trust, engagement, commitment. And interestingly, when we first translated the Bible into English in, was it 15th, 16th,

• 1:32:28Speaker 03

  17th century, the word believed, the English word belief was closer to that, it's close to the the German word belieben, to love, it had connotations of commitment, engagement. She quotes from a Shakespeare play, All's Well That Ends Well, I think, there's a character Bertram, who's looking down on Helena because she's low born, and he's told, "Believe not thy disdain, believe not thy disdain." So that means sort of don't have your heart in it. So actually, then, the word believe changes meaning with the Protestant Reformation and the scientific revolution, now it means just sort of intellectual commitment to a hypothesis about reality. Right, so now we think that's, you read the New Testament, you feel like Jesus talking

• 1:33:10Speaker 03

  about belief, and you think, oh, he really cares about, you know, what propositions of reality you believe, that's what salvation about, whereas actually, it was more about commitment, having your heart in things. So I think, realising there are the, you know, the ways of engagement, you don't have to think, this is definitely true, I felt I was like in my Catholic upbringing, this is the answer, it's definitely true, you can be highly uncertain, you can take it as a metaphor, you can take it as a hope, you can trust it, you can be a bit heretical. So, yeah, all of these things opened up this way of engaging, and once I went down there, I've just got so much out of it, it's the structure, the community, the depth of engagement has really worked for me.

• 1:33:50Tim Ferriss?

  Let's dig into that just a little bit. I would love to ask a few more questions because a few things popped to mind. The first, and I have in fact checked this, I am no religious historian. So my apologies to anyone who's offended by this, but I recall someone credible, I won't mention their name, saying to me, they're like, you know, it's really a shame. There's so much friction oftentimes, at least in the Middle East, between Jews and Muslims because they have a few things that are quite similar. And the way it was positioned to me was in Christianity, it's very important what you believe, but in Judaism and in Islam, it's more important perhaps what you do and heavily

• 1:34:32Tim Ferriss?

  ritualized, that can also be true in Christianity, of course. And I've thought about that and then I'm going to make an awkward transition to my friend A.J. Jacobs, who wrote a book called The Year of Living Biblically, in which he tried to follow all the rules of the Old and New Testament. It's intended to be a funny, but also very informative read. I learned a lot about religion from that book. But the way he put it when he was describing his upbringing, he was raised Jewish, he said, and I'm paraphrasing, "I was raised Jewish, but you know, I am to Judaism as Olive Garden is to Italian." So Olive Garden is, of course, just this fast food chain here where you can get free

• 1:35:17Tim Ferriss?

  breadsticks. So he was socially and culturally Jewish, but not ideologically, religiously Jewish at that point. And this is going to be a whole word salad of things I'm throwing out, but I wonder then how well you can build a community or have that social fabric that religion provides, which I

• 1:35:45Tim Ferriss?

  I'm often hungry for, if I'm being honest, right? I think there's uncontroversially an epidemic of loneliness and there are a million reasons for that, only some of which I'm sure we're even aware of, but mental illness, diagnoses of chronic anxiety, treatment-resistant depression, et cetera, all seem to be in some type of parabolic incline. And I think connection is, I don't want to say the antidote, but one of the strong kind of countervailing options for addressing that. And religion is appealing on that level. My parents started going to church, hmm, maybe 15 years ago, after never going to church, precisely for that reason.

• 1:36:25Tim Ferriss?

  But I'm wondering how well you can cohere as a community if you don't truly believe. There's an article, I suppose, an essay called "Why Strict Churches Make Strong Churches", that talks about this and the freeloader problem and things like that. But what has been your experience in terms of the benefit you derive from a community and the degree of belief in Scripture? Because man, oh man, like if we're talking about Deuteronomy, Leviticus, I mean, if you start taking all that stuff literally, it's, uh, paints a pretty rough picture for things. How do you think about that?

• 1:37:05Tim Ferriss?

  Like, is true belief in Scripture a prerequisite for adherence to the type of rituals and so on that help bond a community? Or is that not the case?

• 1:37:19Speaker 03

  These are great questions that I'm still reflecting on and I'm still thinking about. And I think you're certainly right, in the present moment, at least in the Jewish community, there's more of an openness to this being a cultural phenomenon and belief being less important. I remember, what was the context now, a young Jewish woman tweeted at me, maybe when I was talking about this religious stuff, she would be like, "Oh yeah, my rabbi said when I was gonna have my bar mitzvah and I said, 'I don't believe in God' and the rabbi said, 'Look, no, no, no, there was, don't have any gods but me.'" Right? So it's a negative, it doesn't matter if you don't believe at all, just don't have any other gods.

• 1:38:03Speaker 03

  That was a nice twist. I suppose what I'd like to see is just a little bit more openness to that in the Christian community and...

• 1:38:14Speaker 03

  To what extent is it possible? I mean, certainly Karen Armstrong thinks this kind of focus, strong focus on belief is a more, a more recent adaptation. Her book, I mean, her great book, The Case for God, which is a bad title, I think, because you think it's going to be some proof. That's a strong title. Yeah, I think it's going to be some proof of God or something. Maybe aggressive. Yeah, yeah. It's not at all. It's a history of religion and she divides religion into two epochs. Part one, which she calls the unknown God, which goes from 50,000 B.C. to 1500 A.D. And then what she calls the modern God is from 1500 A.D. to the present moment. So

• 1:38:55Speaker 03

  she thinks there is some radical shift in this focus on, you know, with the scientific revolution and the Protestant Reformation on belief, which propositions do you believe? Of course, it has always been true in Christianity from the early centuries, at least we've got, you know, from the fourth century, when the Roman Empire under Constantine became Christian, you know, we have, he got this council and we have the official creeds. But it's another question, it's a subtly different question. Did you have to believe them? So there's a big fight about which are the correct ones, but do you have to believe them? Armstrong thinks, if we're to be more accurate historically, what belief should mean is commit. So you

• 1:39:37Speaker 03

  should be saying, I believe in one God, Father Almighty. You should be saying, I commit, I engage with that. I have my heart in that. That's really what they meant by those terms. And, you know, the emphasis on the non literal, you know, with the mystical traditions that have always been there, that they would look at an allegorical understanding, as in some sense deeper. I mean, Origin, who I've been researching for this new book, who was, when's Origin? Second century, I think. He was in a sense, a bit of a heretic, but he was sort of before it was properly defined. But he's one of the most influential Christian thinkers of the early days, one of the fathers of the church. And he had this idea of the three

• 1:40:18Speaker 03

  levels of understanding scripture. The first level is the literal meaning, you know, what stuff, what people did, if there's miracles and stuff. Yeah, that's okay. But then the next stage is the moral, right? What is the moral meaning? And then the deeper and higher stage, he thought was the allegorical. And what is going on here at a spiritual allegorical level?

• 1:40:39Tim Ferriss?

  What would be an example of an allegorical understanding of a portion of the Bible or a story?

• 1:40:47Speaker 03

  Let's just take the central idea of Jesus, right? I mean, what has always resonated with me with that, even when I my long period of not being any part of this, was the almost sort of turning upside down of worldly values that were identifying God, not with the king in the castle, you know, but with the naked, executed peasant, right? The guy who hangs out with outcasters. And that was, I mean, his wonderful recent book, Dominion by Tom Holland, which is again, a history of the influence of Christianity. What a bloody radical idea that was. It was ridiculous that, you know, some of the earliest critiques of Christianity,

• 1:41:30Speaker 03

  very, very early, were sort of the figure of the crucified Jesus with a donkey head on. It was just ridiculous that this was the most humiliating punishment. And what this is supposed to be God? I mean, this is whether that's literally true, whether it, but what it stands for. To me, it reveals something deep and ultimate. Whether or not it's literally true, deep and ultimate about what is important and what is of value. The first shall be last, the last shall be first. And I don't know, sometimes with Christianity at the moment in the US, it doesn't, it seems like this is a little bit forgotten. But Holland talks about what an impact it had on the Roman Empire. That suddenly, you know, the poor and the weak had moral value to Roman aristocrats.

• 1:42:15Speaker 03

  This is like, what are you talking about? Another thing he talks about, actually, I've always thought, you know, I don't have a traditional view on sexual ethics in Christianity. But he talks about actually how valuable no sex before marriage was in those early days. Because we're talking of a time when slaves and women. Had no rights, obviously. And to an extent, obviously a limited extent, it prevented rape because if you were going to be a Christian Roman, you had to wait till marriage. And, you know, obviously this didn't work, but you can see a role for it. Maybe it's a role that we don't need to so much cling to that original meaning.

• 1:42:57Speaker 03

  I mean, like in the way, here is a good example of what's changed with Christianity. It used to be totally universal. You couldn't charge interest. That was a sin. Now, you know, these days, yeah, usury. These days, no Christians that I know of hold that because of our understanding of the modern market economy, we reinterpret these things. But what about being gay, right? What, why haven't we re-understood that? I mean, many Christians have, but many Christians haven't in a modern understanding of sexuality. I think that's because there are fewer liberals and progressives in the church now, you know? I mean, it has changed. It has. In my church, the English, we have, we haven't gone all the way to gay marriage, but we got blessings on gay couples. But yeah, so I, what my aspiration really is, you know,

• 1:43:40Speaker 03

  get more liberals involved in these things, not to get rid of the traditionalists, but to have that beautiful, healthy equilibrium. It's always been that, you know, there's always been radicals, there's always been progressives that have been mixing it up and moving it forward. You know, Aquinas was bloody radical at the time. Now it's the official Catholic Church philosophy, you know? So I think there's possibilities that are unexplored here.

• 1:44:05Tim Ferriss?

  Without your childhood experience with Catholicism, do you think you would have returned to, in some form, or re-entered Christianity? Or do you think, since you mentioned, at one point at least, you felt that Buddhism or Hinduism were more spiritual, do you think you would have perhaps ended up in a different camp? Slightly different camp?

• 1:44:32Speaker 03

  One thing I will say, just to preface that, is it's not obviously wrong to me that you will choose what you feel culturally comfortable with. Because I think these matters are very uncertain. I mean, if you get to a point where you think, no, this religion, this other religion, different to the one I was raised with, definitely, definitely true, then, you know, okay, probably the rational thing to do is to convert. But if you're like... In a situation where it's very uncertain whether any religion is true, it's very uncertain which, and I think it makes sense if you're from a Muslim background, that's fits with your identity and it would be such a shift to become a Christian. Maybe even if you think,

• 1:45:15Speaker 03

  if you happen to think, I'm not saying they should think this, but if they think Christianity's a bit more likely to be true, but if it's still so uncertain, you know, I think it could be rational to just stay with what's going to really work for you and fit with your community and your identity. I don't think God cares that much which.

• 1:45:32Tim Ferriss?

  Which team you're on.

• 1:45:34Speaker 03

  William Lane Craig would absolutely kill me for saying that, but I suppose it matters. I suppose it matters if you think you go into hell if you're not Christian. He's got a good answer. I researched him a lot for this debate we had this week and I discovered he's got a good answer to the question of what about countries who've never heard of the gospel, right? And so don't become Christian, you know, more so in history, but even to the present day. His answer is, well, they wouldn't have turned to Jesus anyway. Because God knows what you're going to do and God has set things up that they wouldn't have become Christians anyway. So it's okay that they're going to hell. Anyway, I mean, this is, he's the, I mean, he's a great, he's a great philosopher, very bright guy and probably

• 1:46:16Speaker 03

  the most influential Christian thinker of the moment. So we need to balance things out.

• 1:46:21Tim Ferriss?

  That's a tough one. That type of like sort of theological determinism raises questions about the value of all those missionaries that have been sent about. Or then we get into free will and like all sorts of stuff.

• 1:46:33Speaker 03

  He does, he's got a complex story. He does believe in free will. He thinks it's compatible to say you've got free will, but God knows what you're going to freely do. This is part of what we debated, actually. I don't think that makes coherent sense. But anyway, just to answer your question, I mean, who knows? It's partly cultural, but you know, I do find things of, I mean, this Eastern Orthodox way of mystical tradition makes a lot of sense in my spiritual experiences for the, I think at the moment for me more so than the Hindu stuff I used to believe in, for me personally at least. And I just, I do love the teaching and character of Jesus. And I just think he was, I did a talk recently, I don't know if I should say, I did a talk recently at a very, very right wing audience

• 1:47:16Speaker 03

  in Oxford on this stuff. And I said, those of you who haven't read the Bible, Jesus is pretty damn woke. Just, I was just trying to wipe people up. But anyway.

• 1:47:26Tim Ferriss?

  That's a hell of a Molotov cocktail of an opener for that audience.

• 1:47:30Speaker 03

  You had a bit of a gasp.

• 1:47:31Tim Ferriss?

  Yeah.

• 1:47:32Speaker 03

  You know, the story of the good Samaritan, right, which is Jesus told that story because he was asked, who is my neighbor, right? And why did he tell a story about Samaritan? Because they were the hated ethnic group of his listeners, right? So, you know, I said to this audience, if he was telling that story today, the good Samaritan would be, I don't know, a Muslim immigrant or a trans woman or then I did, I thought, trying to have a bit of going against polarization. Or maybe if Jesus was talking to a load of liberals, maybe the good Samaritan would be wearing a MAGA hat. Who knows? I don't know. But, you know, basically he's saying, look, the people you hate or the people who are different, they should be. So, no, but that's just like radically light years ahead of its time.

• 1:48:15Speaker 03

  I mean, Tom Holland makes this good case that the ideas of human dignity, which shaped the abolition of slavery and the civil rights movement were rooted in these radical ideas of equal human dignity. So I do think there's, you know, there's something very special for me there. But at the end of the day, these matters are very uncertain.

• 1:48:34Tim Ferriss?

  So aside from the, I have to ask again, forgive me, but aside from the beauty of the liminal spaces during the crepuscular hours of dawn and dusk and the beautiful red of a sunset, have you experienced anything you would describe as a mystical experience?

• 1:48:55Speaker 03

  I would say not full blown, no, not to the two terms I'd use. I suppose I think a mystical experience is the more full on thing. But then there's this wonderful term numinous to mean the sort of

• 1:49:06Tim Ferriss?

  It's a great word.

• 1:49:07Speaker 03

  A sense, a sense of maybe mini mystical experience.

• 1:49:10Tim Ferriss?

  Mystical light.

• 1:49:12Speaker 03

  I mean, I did psychedelics when I was a teenager and, you know, had some very deep experiences. I don't know why I didn't sort of in, in my twenties and thirties. But now I've got young kids, it's hard to find time to do some psychedelics.

• 1:49:27Tim Ferriss?

  Go to the 17th dimension.

• 1:49:29Speaker 03

  Have a, have a 10 day meditation retreat. Annika Harris is always telling me, I've got to do 10, 10 day meditation. I don't know why I didn't actually do that when I had the chance. But yeah, I mean, as I get older, actually, before I proposed to my wife, she didn't know I was going to propose. I was talking about like, When I retire, what do you do when you retire and play golf? I wanna have a sort of semi-monastic existence, you know, kind of long period. And she was like, why are you telling me this? And I don't know, I just wanted to know.

• 1:49:58Tim Ferriss?

  She's like, oh, fuck, what did I sign up for here?

• 1:50:03Speaker 03

  Well, I wanted to know this before I asked her. We were in the mountains in Austria and then we went outside and they said, do you wanna marry me? Anyway, but yeah, so I think, I think I would like to, you know, maybe the kids are all, as I get older, I don't wanna carry on trying to be, what am I trying to do? I don't know, be successful in whatever I'm trying to do for the rest of my. This is one thing actually that that's religion has helped me with the thing. You know, you never find happiness that way, do you? It's never enough, you know, you wanna sell more books or get more views or get more money. I have an idea that I wanna, as I get older,

• 1:50:38Speaker 03

  slowly lapse into monasticism. Maybe a bit of help from some ayahuasca or something, but yeah, so maybe I'll have more mystical experience at that point. But I think at the moment I would say I'm confined to the numinous. And to that extent, you know, it's evidentially, it's, it's not that significant, you know? I'm open to it could be a delusion, you know? But I'm choosing, thanks to William James's inspiration, I'm choosing to trust these numinous experiences and to trust this Christian mystical way of understanding them and to work with them and engage with them. And, and I'm loving it, I'm getting a lot out of it. And, you know, people think religion's all about the afterlife or something, but I've found living in hope of a greater purpose has made me less bothered about my personal success.

• 1:51:23Speaker 03

  And it's just really opened me up a lot more to just enjoy what the present moment has to offer. Friends, family and so on.

• 1:51:30Tim Ferriss?

  So I wanna explain something I said earlier, which was related to the number of books on sufism. And the reason for that is not a particular interest in Islam, although I do think there are interesting aspects of that to explore. And if you're interested in Dune, the book and not the movies, although I thought the movies were very well adapted, but they basically stripped all Arabic and Islamic influence from the book. Like "Lisan al-Gaib," one of the many Arabic phrases, "the tongue of the unseen." So digging into some of the etymological origins of the words used in Dune adds another

• 1:52:09Tim Ferriss?

  layer of fascination to it. But the reason for these books is because I enjoy the poetry. And I find the poetry to be beautiful and capture, for me, the, I suppose, essence of mystical experience, which I've been fortunate enough to have myself on a number of occasions incredibly well, without using the G-word or other words that I rightly or wrongly have developed somewhat of a mild allergic reaction to, right? So Christian mystics have some beautiful writing, but it tends to be a little heavy on God and Jesus for

• 1:52:51Tim Ferriss?

  my... and not for my taste, it's just that these strong connotations lead my mind to wander when I want to be immersed in the poetry itself. And so if we're looking at, say, Halal Eliza Gaffory's relatively new translations of Rumi as an example, or much of the poetry of Hafiz, both of which I would recommend, I can work with taverns, I can work with getting drunk on wine, I can work with many of the metaphors that are used. The caravan, I mean, many of these evocative phrases are enough to immerse me in the language.

• 1:53:30Tim Ferriss?

  And I think what's trying to be transmitted without pulling me into some type of political distraction or childhood experience that subtracts rather from adds to the experience. So a lot of it is poetry, not all, but a lot of it is certainly poetry. And then broadly speaking, I suppose, mystics.

• 1:53:53Tim Ferriss?

  And I'm sure people would disagree with this, but accounts of firsthand experience with what they may consider divine, these make for fascinating reading for me. And certainly, if you look at, if you really take a microscope to the origin stories of a lot of these religions, I mean, it becomes very plausible that most, if not all of them, started with direct experience of some type that rhymes with many of the descriptions you would find in the books that I'm looking at on my bookshelves, as an example. So Stoicism can be a little sterile. I'd say Stoicism,

• 1:54:32Tim Ferriss?

  for me, incredibly helpful, incredibly powerful as a tool for reducing suffering, but it doesn't, to my reading of it, give you a whole lot in terms of increasing joy. And subtraction alone doesn't add the good. So for that, I tend to stray from Stoicism into Epicureanism and different types of mysticism and so on. So that's, that's the background.

• 1:55:03Speaker 03

  That's all absolutely fascinating. Well, I'd love to get some of those recommendations. Maybe I'll just put for the super literature and poetry. And yeah, it sounds that is really working for you and that's wonderful. And yeah, I mean, I think you're definitely right that the great religions do seem to begin with experiences. I mean, you know, in the Christian case, it seemed to be what they called the resurrection, seemed to be this explosion of strong experiences that the early Christians had after Jesus had died. And you can make of that what you will. I prefer to think of it as visionary rather than seeing and touching a body, but there does seem to be

• 1:55:46Speaker 03

  some historians thing. I mean, even atheist, I mean, Bart Ehrman is our best atheist Bible scholar, will certainly concede that there were these Radical experiences by people like Peter and Mary Magdalene, the Kickstarter, the Christian movement. So I think you're right, it comes back to experience. But I mean, I share your issues with the connotations of the word Jesus, the word God. And first of all, what I'm trying to do is shift things. One thing I wrote on this when I had my going public as a heretical Christian, I wrote this thing for Eon magazine, people might be interested in. And I borrowed something from another writer, whose name escapes me now. Rather than using the

• 1:56:28Speaker 03

  word Jesus, use the Jewish word Yeshua, just to kind of

• 1:56:32Tim Ferriss?

  Just to diffuse it a little bit.

• 1:56:34Speaker 03

  Because I know, you know, I think of a certain kind of US Christian, a certain kind of very distinctive, which is not what I'm talking about and not my experience. And the word God as well. Yeah. Well, what do you think I should use for God in this book? What should I, you know, the transcend, did I just talk about the transcend? Actually, do you know, William James used the term the more with a capital M, which I think is a nice, or the divine, or yeah, I don't know. It's something to wrestle with.

• 1:57:03Tim Ferriss?

  Divine's tricky too. I like the more. And I'm gonna get a bunch of angry posts on on social media. I don't have anything against, on some fundamental level, the word God or anything with Jesus either. It's just that oftentimes God is not defined well enough to justify the life or death debates and fighting that happens around the term, if that makes sense. And there are a lot of words that cause trouble in life if not defined. I should also just qualify, when I mentioned the direct experience, I was not referring to necessarily the stories in the Bible,

• 1:57:46Tim Ferriss?

  but also the possibility that, for instance, the acacia tree is

• 1:57:53Tim Ferriss?

  Is prevalent in parts of the Middle East, the root bark of which, it might be the leaves, actually, somebody could correct me here, I might be mixing things up, contain DMT, NNDMT, and then also the prevalence of Syrian rue, which contains a monoamine oxidase inhibitors. What else is a combination of those two things? Ayahuasca, as an example. So, the point being, to render the NNDMT bioactive, it is entirely possible that people in the ancient world, as people and animals, by the way, have figured out that certain psychoactives can be sort of orally bioavailable. This comes back to Brian Murrescu and some of his writing,

• 1:58:35Tim Ferriss?

  if people want to explore that. But, this is definitely, it's definitely a clear and present topic on my mind. The place of religion and the seemingly, people might come after me for this also, but like evolved instinct for something resembling religion. I don't know if it's functional, if it's vestigial, but could be that, and this would be my position, that I don't think humans are unique at all in being conscious, but I do think we may be unique in our awareness of mortality and ultimate death. And that presents quite

• 1:59:14Tim Ferriss?

  a quandary. And religion offers some, at the very least, salve for that. Anyway, that isn't a very pointed question, it's more of a rambling.

• 1:59:25Speaker 03

  Fascinating possibility, the role of psychedelic substances in formation of religion. And, you know, I would say that wouldn't undermine it, right? I think that doesn't mean these experiences are delusions, or, you know, and I've got hope, I think as we have engaged more with psychedelics, and there is more of an openness. Actually, you know, I mean, I wrote this book, I modestly titled, Why the Purpose of the Universe. I mean, a similar book was written.

• 1:59:52Speaker 03

  Ten years ago, more than ten years ago, fifteen years ago nearly, by the great philosopher Thomas Nagel called Mind and Cosmos. And he got absolutely destroyed in reviews. He was really, people were saying, oh, he's lost his mind. Whereas Thomas Nagel is a better philosopher than me. It was a, I'm not saying this is a better book, but it had a much warmer reception. It got a five star review in Popular Science magazine. It got, you know, I'm honestly not saying this to boast, I'm not, I just, it's a sign of cultural change. Most of the reviews said, I don't agree with this, but it was a good book. But anyway, I think that's a real sign of that there's a greater openness to some of these things that are going, certainly a greater openness to spirit.

• 2:00:35Speaker 03

  I think new atheism is a bit passe now, isn't it? And I think there's greater openness to spirituality. I suppose I'm exploring whether that can connect with traditional religion in a very uncertain, mildly heretical way and whether for some people could get something out of that. And I'm just trying out that option, I suppose, if you like. Something interesting seems to be happening, I think.

• 2:01:03Tim Ferriss?

  For sure. I remember a few years ago, I was at an event and the, the topic of the table, we were organized into small groups for every dinner and you would have set topics and somebody would try to facilitate the said topic or question. And the topic was something along the lines of what are your predictions for the next three to five years? And this was, I guess, two or three years ago. And one of the people at my table was one of the strongest figures, biggest figures in the evangelical Christian movement in the United States. And we all had a fantastic conversation.

• 2:01:47Tim Ferriss?

  I ended up going first or second. And my answer was, I think there's going to be an explosion of interest in religions that have seen an exodus on some level over the last few decades. And there's also going to be a proliferation of new religions, new churches to meet the hard to

• 2:02:15Tim Ferriss?

  Verbalize needs of a populace who is struggling with pervasive and acute loneliness. And that the ability to absorb the mass communication through social media and separate the signal from the noise from a sort of scientific, like rational materialist worldview is going to become so hard. I'm not saying it's not a worthwhile objective, but so hard and really impossible for the vast majority of people who are not trained to filter through those things and don't have firsthand access to scientists, that there will be, for all of those reasons and more, a return to religion.

• 2:02:57Tim Ferriss?

  And if you look at also then adding the accelerant of psychedelics to that, which I have very mixed views on these days, by the way, which is just to say, like, the hallucinian mysteries, okay, if you have a handful of people after a long time are inducted into consuming some derivative of ergot, which would be similar to say LSD, that's one thing, but when you have the potential of tens of thousands, hundreds of thousands, millions of people taking these substances, nothing like that has ever happened before in the history of humankind. So we'll see what type of mixed blessing that is. But it's been fascinating to see how many new churches have been established in the

• 2:03:38Tim Ferriss?

  US, which on some level, I think, are largely created to provide constitutional protection if you are using psychedelics as a sacrament, right? So it's a legal protection. But how, you know, once the horses are out of the barn and people have formed these churches and religions, they actually become interesting in and of themselves as religions, even without the added psychedelic sacraments. And so you see, say, former conservative Mormons in Utah splintering off and creating religions that incorporate both Christianity and psychedelic use. And, I mean, there's some itch that these things, whether the...

• 2:04:22Tim Ferriss?

  Sort of Abrahamic traditional religions or the newer religions scratch that is it's difficult to put a finger on, but it's also pretty hard to refute, it seems to me. I don't know.

• 2:04:33Speaker 03

  Yeah. I mean, I'm just, I don't know what's gonna happen. I'm, I mean, there's been an increase in paganism here and my wife's not religious. I, you know, I take the kids to church on my own and she was thinking of exploring Wicca at some point. I would, I would have loved to say in church, you know, so where's your wife? Say, oh, she's a witch.

• 2:04:54Speaker 03

  But, uh, yeah, I don't know. I just, for me, I think spirituality is important and I think more and more people are appreciating that there's a role for something that structured that brings people together. Now, there are powerful forces in the world, powerful forces like hatred, division, you know, something that grassroots brings people together, connects them to something greater, you know. I, I suppose that's what I believe in and that's what I would like to encourage. I'm trying one way of doing that, engaging with it in a slightly different way with the traditional religions. But, you know, I'm excited if other people are trying different things and see where it goes.

• 2:05:34Tim Ferriss?

  See where it goes. Indeed. Two last questions. These are pretty quick ones, I suspect. This is the billboard question. So if you could put anything on a billboard, metaphorically speaking, to get it in front of millions, hundreds of millions of people, take your pick. Can't be anything commercial, of course, but it could be a quote, an image, doesn't need to be your quote, anything at all, something you'd want to convey to a lot of people. Do you have any thoughts for what you would put on it?

• 2:06:02Speaker 03

  As always, I'm torn between the sort of the more intellectual things, the drier things or the things to do with kind of meaning. And I mean, on the former, I suppose I'm more passionate about the importance of philosophy and we need to, sometimes you can't just do experiments. Sometimes you need to make judgment calls, but that's kind of boring and dry. I mean, I suppose in terms of more meaning of existence kind of things, I think, touching on what we said earlier, I suppose, I think one of the things I feel I've learned as I've got older is the importance of trying to not start from what do I want? What's going to make me successful? To try and orientate yourself to what contribution can I make? How can I make the world a slightly better place?

• 2:06:47Speaker 03

  If your fundamental life goal is making me more successful, you know, that's not going to end well, you know, because it's never enough. It never, I mean, I think I'm kind of lucky that I'm not that bothered about money. I'm not really into power, really. I don't really, but I do have a bit of an ego. Do you know what I mean? I do want to be respected philosopher, but that it's never enough. You're always sort of jealous of someone who's doing better. So I think the more one can try, and it's not easy, right? To just continually orient your life to reality outside of yourself and just trying to make a contribution. That's actually, that's what I do in prayer, actually. I pray last thing at night and meditate first thing in the morning.

• 2:07:31Speaker 03

  So that, you know, I said, talking to God at night, listening to God in the morning. And, you know, I think in prayer, I just orientate myself to sort of try and, never works perfectly, but try and make your life goal, making some kind of contribution. And, and I find that just takes the pressure off you and does really just free, free you up.

• 2:07:51Tim Ferriss?

  For sure.

• 2:07:52Speaker 03

  To just enjoy what the present moment has to offer. So, yeah, so I suppose, remind me, I was sort of thinking you took my billboards, you saying about this and, and I was thinking, it made me think of these signs you used to have in the war saying, don't ask what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country. You know, that's in a sort of spirit of nationalist war effort. That's not what I'm getting at, but maybe, you know, something like, don't start from what do I want? Start from how can I contribute? And I, I sort of think happiness flows from that. So something like that, a bit more, I need an editor, don't I? So to sharpen up a bit would be on the billboard.

• 2:08:28Tim Ferriss?

  We'll take it to Madison Avenue. We'll figure it out. And Philip, where are the best places for people to find you? Is it philipgoffphilosophy.com? Is that the best place to point people?

• 2:08:37Speaker 03

  Yeah, that's my website that I try and update regularly. It's got academic stuff and popular articles and lots of videos and complete archive of the media stuff I've done that I, yeah, I try to keep up to date. I, I spend too much time arguing on, well, it used to be X and then. All the liberals have gone to Blue Sky and I'm doing both. I kind of worry about this bit of a divided community, so I'm arguing on both. And it's interesting the different reactions you get on. But yeah, I spend too much time arguing on. That's been really useful actually for learning this thing. You know, I think when I first, my book first came out and I was on sort of Joe Rogan and stuff, and I think he didn't know what the hell I was talking about. It was like my fault. But part of what's helped

• 2:09:22Speaker 03

  me communicate with the general audience, I think, is arguing with ordinary people on X and Blue Sky. And yes, if you want to have an argument, I can't keep up with it these days, but have an argument with me there if you want to. I have a Substack I just started. I try and do something every month on a Substack.

• 2:09:40Tim Ferriss?

  If you want to pick a fight and have an argument with Philip, then I suppose X is the best gladiatorial arena for that.

• 2:09:46Speaker 03

  Oh, the books, Galileo's Error and Why, they're a great read, I hear.

• 2:09:51Tim Ferriss?

  And as far as the great place to argue goes, the dose makes the poison, folks. So just be careful with your dosing. Philip, this has been so fun. Thank you for taking the time to have such a wide-ranging conversation. I really appreciate it. And I took a bunch of notes for myself. I'll be revisiting the show notes when they are put together. And is there anything else you'd like to say or point people to, any formal complaints you'd like to lodge publicly? Anything at all you'd like to add before we wind to a close?

• 2:10:21Speaker 03

  No, that was just to say thank you. I think you're right. It has been a wonderful, we had a good session on the panpsychism and a good session on the religion stuff. And I've learned a lot, actually. We talked about sufism and lots of, yeah, I want to think a lot of things I want to follow up there that are going to be very useful for this book I've just started that hopefully I'll write if I can spend less time arguing on X. Philip underscore Goff. Yeah.

• 2:10:50Speaker 03

  Yeah, thanks so much. Let's stay in touch.

• 2:10:52Tim Ferriss?

  Absolutely. Yeah, thanks, Philip. And for everybody listening, as usual, we will have show notes with links to everything we discussed and probably more at tim.blog/podcast. And until next time, be just a bit kinder than is necessary to others and also to yourself. Thanks for tuning in.

• 2:11:11Tim Ferriss?

  Hey, guys. This is Tim again. Just one more thing before you take off, and that is Five Bullet Friday. Would you enjoy getting a short email from me every Friday that provides a little fun before the weekend? Between one and a half and two million people subscribe to my free newsletter, my super short newsletter called Five Bullet Friday. Easy to sign up, easy to cancel. It is basically a half-page that I send out every Friday to share the coolest things I've found or discovered, or have started exploring over that week. It's kind of like my diary of cool things. It often includes articles I'm reading, books I'm reading, albums perhaps, gadgets, gizmos, all sorts of tech tricks and so on that get sent to me by my friends, including a lot of podcast guests. And these strange esoteric

• 2:11:55Tim Ferriss?

  things end up in my field, and then I test them, and then I share them with you. So, if that sounds fun, again, it's very short, a little tiny bite of goodness before you head off for the weekend, something to think about. If you'd like to try it out, just go to tim.blog/friday, type that into your browser, tim.blog/friday, drop in your email, and you'll get the very next one. Thanks for listening.

• 2:12:20Tim Ferriss?

  In the last handful of years, I've become very interested in environmental toxins, avoiding microplastics, and many other commonly found compounds all over the place. One place I looked is in the kitchen. Many people don't realize just how toxic their cookware is or can be. A lot of non-stick pans, practically all of them, can release harmful forever chemicals, PFAS, in other words, spelled PFAS, into your food, your home, and then ultimately that ends up in your body. Teflon is a prime example of this. It is still the forever chemical that most companies are using. So Our Place reached out to me as a potential sponsor and the first thing I did was look at the reviews of their products and said, "Send me one."

• 2:13:05Tim Ferriss?

  And that is the Titanium Always Pan Pro. And the claim is that it's the first non-stick pan with zero coating. So that means zero forever chemicals and durability that'll last forever. I was very skeptical. I was very busy. So I said, "You know what? I want to test this thing quickly. It's supposed to be non-stick. It's supposed to be durable. I'm going to test it with two things. I'm going to test it with scrambled eggs in the morning, because eggs are always a disaster in anything that isn't non-stick with the toxic coating. And then I'm going to test it with a steak sear, because I want to see how much it retains heat. And it worked perfectly in both cases and I was frankly astonished how well it worked.

• 2:13:47Tim Ferriss?

  The Titanium Always Pan Pro has become my go-to pan in the kitchen. It replaces a lot of other things for searing, for eggs, for anything you can imagine. And the design is really clever. It does combine the best qualities of stainless steel, cast iron, and non-stick into one product. And now Our Place is expanding this first-of-its-kind technology to their Titanium Pro cookware sets, which are made in limited quantities. So if you're looking for non-toxic, long-lasting pots and pans that outperform everything else in your kitchen, just head to fromourplace.com/tim and use code TIM for 10% off of your order. You can enjoy a 100-day risk-free trial, free shipping, and free returns. Check it out.

• 2:14:31Tim Ferriss?

  Fromourplace.com/tim. As many of you know, for the last few years, I've been sleeping on a Midnight Luxe mattress from today's sponsor, Helix Sleep. I also have one in the guest bedroom downstairs and feedback from friends has always been fantastic. Kind of over the top, to be honest. I mean, they frequently say it's the best night of sleep they've had in ages. What kind of mattress is it? What do you do? What's the magic juju? It's something they comment on without any prompting from me whatsoever. I also recently had a chance to test the Helix Sunset Elite in a new guest bedroom, which I sometimes sleep in, and I picked it for It's very soft but supportive feel to help with some lower back pain that I've had. The Sunset Elite delivers exceptional comfort while putting the right support in the right spots.

• 2:15:14Tim Ferriss?

  It is made with five tailored foam layers, including a base layer with full perimeter zoned lumbar support, right where I need it, and middle layers with premium foam and micro coils that create a soft contouring feel. Which also means if I feel like I want to sleep on my side, I can do that without worrying about other aches and pains that might create. And with a luxurious pillow top for pressure relief, I look forward to nesting into that bed every night that I use it. The best part, of course, is that it helps me wake up feeling fully rested with a back that feels supple instead of stiff. That is the name of the game for me these days. Helix offers a 100-night sleep trial, fast free shipping, and a 15-year warranty, so check it all out.

• 2:15:54Tim Ferriss?

  And you, my dear listeners, can get 20% off of all mattress orders, so go to helixsleep.com/tim to learn more. So, take a look. With Helix, better sleep starts now.