3 key moments that led to the U.S.-Iran war

Military confrontations, early-morning attacks, and digital warfare: the story of Iran and the U. S. from the 1979 Iranian revolution to the fraught moment we're in today. This episode originally ran in 2019 as Rules of Engagement https://www.npr.org/2019/07/17/742712613/rules-of-engagement. You can find more of Throughline's coverage into the origins of the conflict in the Middle East here https://www.npr.org/series/1255058395/enter-title. Guests: Karim Sadjadpour, senior fellow at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Michael Eisenstadt, director of the Washington Institute's military and security studies program Kim Zetter, writer for WIRED magazine and author of Countdown to Zero Day: Stuxnet and the Launch of the World's First Digital Weapon To access bonus episodes and listen to Throughline sponsor-free, subscribe to Throughline+ via Apple Podcasts or at plus.npr.org/throughline. See pcm.adswizz.com https://pcm.adswizz.com for information about our collection and use of personal data for sponsorship and to manage your podcast sponsorship preferences. NPR Privacy Policy https://www.npr.org/about-npr/179878450/privacy-policy

• 0:00Speaker 00

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• 0:15Speaker 01

  Hey, it's Rand. The current war launched by the United States and Israel against Iran has been decades in the making. And Throughline has been covering the tension between the US and Iran for years. So today, we're bringing you an episode from a past series we made. Part one of this series took us inside the CIA-backed overthrow of Iran's democratically-elected prime minister in 1953. That episode is called "Four Days in August." And if you haven't heard it yet, check it out in our archives. Today, we pick the story back up in 1979.

• 0:59Speaker 01

  The secular Shah the US put in place after the coup in 1953 was suddenly facing a major crisis: an Islamic revolution.

• 1:09Speaker 02

  For the last seven days, Tehran and other cities have seen violent clashes between troops and demonstrators demanding soldiers return. ... and homemade petrol bombs.

• 1:19Speaker 03

  Hundreds of thousands of protesters took to the streets.

• 1:22Speaker 02

  Inevitably, the result is massacre.

• 1:26Speaker 03

  The Shah was forced to flee Iran, and a new leader, a Muslim cleric named Ayatollah Khomeini, took power.

• 1:32Speaker 02

  ... returns to a country teetering on the brink of civil war.

• 1:36Speaker 04

  The crowd chanted, "Allahu Akbar! God is great!" Then raced along with the motorcade, trying to get a glimpse of the Ayatollah.

• 1:44Speaker 03

  And this began a new era in US-Iran relations.

• 1:47Speaker 04

  In an obvious reference to the United States, he said, "Foreign advisers have ruined our culture and have taken our oil."

• 1:54Speaker 05

  And so, in the course of months, Iran went from one of America's best allies to one of America's worst adversaries.

• 2:03Speaker 01

  Not long after the revolution, Iran did something that solidified its new place as an American adversary.

• 2:10Speaker 06

  The American embassy in Tehran is in the hands of Muslim students tonight. Spurred on by an anti-American speech by the Ayatollah Khomeini, they stormed the embassy, fought the Marine Guards for three hours, overpowered them, and took dozens of American hostages.

• 2:25Speaker 01

  Some 60 Americans, including our fellow citizen whom you just saw, bound and blindfolded, are now beginning their sixth day of captivity inside the US embassy in Tehran. It's Friday morning there now. Over the past 40-plus years, this ongoing antagonism between the two countries has led to violent, even deadly, results. In this 2019 episode from our archives, we explored the direct military confrontations, the covert battles, and the 21st century cyberwar between Iran and the United States and the contexts behind the moment we're in today.

• 3:22Speaker 00

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• 4:36Speaker 00

  Part one. Do you copy?

• 4:47Speaker 04

  Iraq claims to have carried out more than 130 air raids yesterday and to have shot down two Iranian jets.

• 4:56Speaker 04

  Iraq's Saddam Hussein has been active in honoring his army field commanders, whose string of recent military triumphs tilted the war decisively in Baghdad's favor.

• 5:07Speaker 01

  It was Saddam Hussein who declared, "Whoever climbs over our fence, we shall climb over his roof."

• 5:19Speaker 05

  The Iranian-Iraq war was one of the bloodiest wars of the second half of the 20th century.

• 5:26Speaker 05

  When it was over after eight years, there was over a million casualties, Iranian and Iraqi casualties.

• 5:32Speaker 01

  Relations between Iran and Iraq worsened when the Ayatollahs took over. The Iraqis claimed that the Iranians were refusing to implement border agreements, and the first skirmishes broke out.

• 5:42Speaker 05

  Iraq invaded Iran on land, and they met with some initial success, especially in the southwest, which was the oil-producing region of Iran. But very quickly, the war effort bogged down. And by 1982, Iran had succeeded in expelling Iraqi forces out of Iran.

• 6:03Speaker 05

  And it looked like momentum was working against Iraq in the long term. Iran has a much larger population, larger territorial base. So there were fears on the Iraqi side that eventually, if the war dragged on, they would lose. So they tried to ask

• 6:18Speaker 02

  and expand the war to include economic warfare. So they targeted Iran's oil industry. Iran responded in kind and started attacking ships in the Gulf that were going to pick up oil from other Arab countries that were allied to Iraq and providing financial and other help to Iraq as part of its war effort against Iran.

• 6:41Speaker 05

  For both countries, oil is the lifeblood of their economy. And so they're trying to sink one another's oil tankers to weaken one another economically.

• 6:51Speaker 02

  So they attacked using aircraft, helicopters, fixed wing aircraft, and they also attacked using small boats. The small boats very often would have machine guns, rocket propelled grenades, or small diameter rockets, 107 millimeter rockets. So they would pull up in front of a ship going through the Gulf. They would set up in a line in front of the ship's line of movement. And as the ship passed them, they would open fire and rake the hull. And sometimes they would shoot at the bridge where the crew was located. An oil tanker runs the gauntlet of air attacks in the Gulf War.

• 7:34Speaker 02

  Now, the ships, because they are very large tankers and were often double hulled, the damage did not cause these ships to sink. And they were able to continue, you know, with their mission, but it imposed costs. It was dangerous for the crews.

• 7:52Speaker 05

  And that area where Iran and Iraq were fighting, Strait of Hormuz, is an incredibly crucial geo-economic chokehold.

• 8:03Speaker 02

  Once through the entrance, the Straits of Hormuz, the oil tankers face a problem, regardless of their destination.

• 8:09Speaker 05

  On any given day, 20 to 40% of the world's oil passes through the Strait of Hormuz. And at its narrowest point, it's about 20 miles wide.

• 8:19Speaker 02

  What's happening is that the war on land between Iran and Iraq

• 8:22Speaker 01

  is spilling over into the sea with western tankers being the sitting targets for both sides.

• 8:28Speaker 05

  The world cared about what was happening with these tanker wars because it was affecting the price of gasoline throughout the world. It was absolutely crucial to the fate of the global economy.

• 8:39Speaker 02

  In 1986, 1987, Iran intensified its attacks on Kuwaiti tankers in particular. Kuwait was playing an especially important role in the war as a country that was providing support to Iraq, financial and otherwise, providing loans. They had been asking the United States about the idea of perhaps providing escort for their tankers so that they wouldn't be attacked. And at first we didn't respond with enthusiasm. So the Kuwaitis went to the Russians and the Russians responded almost immediately that they'd be willing to do so.

• 9:21Speaker 02

  When we heard about that, our response was, well, we're potentially yielding the playing field in the Gulf to the Russians. And within the context of great power competition during the Cold War, the relationship was seen as a zero-sum game, so.

• 9:36Speaker 05

  That's when the United States got itself involved.

• 9:39Speaker 02

  From ABC, this is World News Tonight with Peter Jennings. Good evening. That was an American flag on the back of that ship and we begin this evening in what is surely the world's most dangerous body of water, the Persian Gulf.

• 9:52Speaker 05

  The United States actually put its own flag on Kuwaiti tankers as a way of kind of deterring Iran from continuing these attacks.

• 10:00Speaker 02

  So we were kind of in effect protecting our own ships at sea. Lima, India, this is ship 37. I have you on my radar. Please remain for the 3000. We set up an arrangement whereby we would have a convoy system where we'd pick up Kuwaiti tankers outside the entrance to the Persian Gulf and escort. them for about a day or two until they reached Kuwait, dropped them off, and then we would kind of go back and, you know, escort more ships coming in.

• 10:29Speaker 01

  And so the United States embarks on a Mideast mission which is haunted by one question. Will the Iranians try to attack the Kuwaiti ships now that they are technically American?

• 10:39Speaker 05

  It wasn't commonly done, and in fact, it was very controversial. Members of Congress were openly questioning, why are we doing that? You know, why are we putting American flags on the vessels of other countries? You know, why are we kind of stretching ourselves so thin and potentially getting involved in a war between two countries which are essentially both adversaries of the United States, Iran and Iraq?

• 11:06Speaker 02

  The American assumption had been going into this that the presence of US warships protecting re-flagged ships and the presence of a US aircraft carrier in the region would deter the Iranians. We had no prior military experience with the Iranians, except for the failed hostage rescue operation a number of years before. We had not had any sustained military interactions with Iranians, and therefore we were kind of like a blank slate. We didn't really know what to expect, and we made a lot of assumptions which turned out not to be correct when put up against the test of reality.

• 11:39Speaker 06

  That took a new turn today when American warships shelled and destroyed two Iranian oil platforms and then raided another.

• 11:47Speaker 04

  Smoke could be seen for 10 miles, but the message was meant for Tehran, 690 miles away.

• 11:52Speaker 02

  We were engaged in a low-intensity conflict with Iran throughout this period, which occasionally spiked to involve direct military engagements.

• 12:02Speaker 06

  It was in retaliation for the weekend missile attack by Iran on an American-flagged tanker.

• 12:07Speaker 04

  Iran is believed to have fired the long-range missile which last Friday struck the American-flagged tanker Sea Isle City, wounding many of her crew.

• 12:16Speaker 05

  And increasingly, what you see is this conflict zone in which everyone has their finger on the trigger. You know, it's a fog of war, you're at sea, and there's constant risk of miscalculation, there's lack of communication.

• 12:31Speaker 01

  The Islamic news agency said the US has become involved in a full-fledged war.

• 12:36Speaker 04

  With Iran, the Iranian president Ali Khamenei is quoted as saying, "We will retaliate."

• 12:41Speaker 02

  The United States expanded its rules of engagement to allow US vessels at sea to come to the aid of ships from other countries that were not part of the reflagging operation, but are being attacked by the Iranians. So we're being more proactive in the Gulf in terms of our activities. There was a newly arrived ship, the USS Vincennes, coming to the region. There was a new class of ship with a radar system that could see further out with greater resolution than the radar systems that were then used by the ships. Their role generally was to kind of hang back and provide a big picture of the air defense environment for the other ships that are operating in the region.

• 13:30Speaker 05

  So on July 3rd, 1988.

• 13:33Speaker 02

  What happened on July 3rd was a Pakistani tanker had come under attack. The Vincennes sent its helicopter to investigate. As it approached the area where the attack was occurring, Iranian ships fired warning shots at the helicopter for it to stay away. The helicopter thought they were under attack and reported it as such. The Vincennes then steamed to the aid of its helicopter, as well as to join the fight. In doing so, they moved into Iranian territorial waters, which was a violation of US rules of engagement.

• 14:11Speaker 02

  At the same time, while it's doing this and while it's pursuing the Iranian warships that were involved in the attack against the Pakistani tanker, an Iranian civilian aircraft takes off from the airport in the city of

• 14:25Speaker 05

  Bandar Abbas.

• 14:26Speaker 02

  Which is a airfield and a

• 14:28Speaker 05

  Port city in the south of Iran.

• 14:30Speaker 02

  En route to Dubai in the United Arab Emirates.

• 14:32Speaker 05

  And what would usually be a 30-minute flight, very easy.

• 14:36Speaker 02

  And as it turns out, it was flying right over the area in which combat was going on, on the surface.

• 14:42Speaker 05

  And

• 14:43Speaker 02

  It takes off.

• 14:47Speaker 02

  The crew of the Vincennes thought that this civilian jet

• 14:51Speaker 03

  was actually an Iranian fighter aircraft that was at first gaining altitude, but then diving to attack.

• 14:58Speaker 05

  They mistook it for an Iranian military aircraft. And they were trying to communicate with it, but they were using military frequency to communicate with this Iranian plane. And they weren't getting any response because this Iranian plane was a civilian airliner, which wasn't on a military frequency.

• 15:20Speaker 05

  So after numerous attempts of trying to communicate with it.

• 15:24Speaker 03

  They shot two surface-to-air missiles,

• 15:30Speaker 03

  which brought down the Iranian airliner,

• 15:35Speaker 03

  killing 290 civilian support.

• 15:41Speaker 06

  There has been a dramatic and sudden escalation of hostilities in the Persian Gulf involving US forces. There is the possibility that US Navy missiles may have accidentally shot down an Iranian civilian airliner, a civilian airliner carrying nearly 300 people.

• 15:58Speaker 05

  And so I think the fog of war, coupled with both a miscalculation, itchy trigger fingers, and inability to communicate, you know, resulted in this terrible tragedy.

• 16:12Speaker 06

  Throughout the morning, there have been very confused reports as to what actually happened.

• 16:16Speaker 05

  To this day, the Iranian government believes there was no way this was an accident.

• 16:22Speaker 06

  Saying that it was doubtful that the plane that was shot down was an F-14 fighter.

• 16:26Speaker 05

  Because the plane was clearly marked, its flight pattern was clearly civilian aircraft headed to Dubai. There's probably dozens of such flights every day between Bandar Abbas and Dubai. But what the US side talks about is the broader context, you know, this US warship was actually receiving fire from what they thought were Iranian warships.

• 16:56Speaker 05

  You know, there was constant attacks taking place during that time. And so the United States acknowledged it as a terrible mistake.

• 17:07Speaker 04

  President Ronald Reagan offered what is known as ex caricia payments, voluntary payments by the United States government to the families of the victims of Iran Air 655. And this settlement today...

• 17:21Speaker 05

  For Iran, these things are not mistakes. Even if America claimed it was a mistake, the message that was taken by the Iranian side was that this was an act of open hostility.

• 17:37Speaker 04

  One of the things you often hear today is that there's always a worry about miscalculation in dealing with Iranians, that there's always the potential for inadvertent escalation as a result of a tragic mistake. On the other hand, I would point out that one of the lessons of this conflict during the latter phases of the Iran-Iraq war is that actually both sides were pretty good at keeping the level of conflict within a certain kind of relatively narrow band, that neither side wanted the conflict to spiral out of control and become an even larger war, and they largely succeeded in that regard.

• 18:14Speaker 05

  Several months later, Iran actually signed a peace treaty to end the Iran-Iraq war. So the shooting down of Flight 655, Iran Air Flight 655, was a terrible tragedy in which civilians were killed. If you look back, though, at the history, it may have been that the Iran-Iraq war might have lasted longer had that terrible incident not taken place.

• 18:39Speaker 05

  I think one thing the United States realized by the late 1980s was that the Iranian revolution was not just going to be a flash-in-the-pan phenomenon, you know, that the revolutionary Islam and the Khomeneist ideology that was born out of the 1979 revolution was going to be an enduring concern.

• 19:05Speaker 05

  And shortly thereafter, when the Soviet Union collapsed, I think Iran and the threat of radical Islam eclipse communism as kind of challenge or threat number one for the United States. And I think similarly, one of Iran's takeaways from the Iran-Iraq war and its interactions with the US military is that the US military's budget is more than 50 times that of Iran's. And so in a head-to-head conventional military matchup, Iran cannot compete with the United States.

• 19:47Speaker 05

  How it can compete is using essentially asymmetric warfare, whether that's the use of proxies, whether that's the use of mines, in some cases, taking hostages, having plausible deniability. Iran needed to figure out low-cost, high-impact ways to challenge the United States. And it's really honed that ability over the last four decades.

• 20:23Speaker 01

  That was Kareem Sajadpour, a senior fellow at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and Michael Eisenstadt, director of the Washington Institute's Military and Security Studies Program. Coming up, the story of the shadow war.

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  Hello. Hello. Hi. My name is Kelly. TC. Cherry. And we are calling from... Michigan! And we love true life and make me a better teacher, a better person, a better... Thank you for what you do. Bye-bye.

• 21:11Speaker 00

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• 22:25Speaker 00

  Part Two.

• 22:27Speaker 04

  Hidden in Plain Sight.

• 22:32Speaker 04

  I blame myself for what happened. I was a sergeant of the guard. I was ultimately responsible for the security of that BLT that morning.

• 22:42Speaker 04

  It was 6:30 on a Sunday morning. Beirut, Lebanon. Everybody was asleep.

• 22:49Speaker 01

  We have a bulletin from the Pentagon on the explosion in Beirut at the U.S. Marines barracks.

• 22:55Speaker 04

  Then I heard the rev of an engine behind me.

• 22:57Speaker 01

  A truck loaded with explosives broke through a gate into the lobby of a building in Beirut occupied by Marines.

• 23:06Speaker 04

  Saw the truck come to a stop, dead center of that lobby. Dead silence in the lobby. You could hear a pin drop.

• 23:16Speaker 04

  And then the next thing I saw was a bright orange flash.

• 23:24Speaker 04

  A truck crashed through barriers and exploded in the lobby of the headquarters building where Marines were sleeping. The first thing I said was, "Son of a bitch, he did it." Causing the four-story structure to collapse.

• 23:39Speaker 04

  Chunks of concrete and spears of broken glass were hurled hundreds of yards, wounding other Marines. Some of those wounded helped pull their colleagues from the rubble. I remember looking over my shoulder, and there was one Marine back here, moaning, "Help me, help me, God, help me, somebody please help me." The Pentagon now estimates that 120, possibly more, have been killed. A list of survivors, dead and wounded, is still being compiled. Forty-five of the more critically wounded have been evacuated. Others remain to be evacuated later. Been pretty hectic, trying to just sort things out, see what the total effect of this tragedy is going to be.

• 24:24Speaker 05

  So, in 1983, a truck bombing destroys US military marine barracks in Beirut, which was, I think, the deadliest single-day attack on US Marines since Iwo Jima. Almost 250 Marines were killed. It was unclear to people who was behind this attack, because it was a truck bombing. And, you know, now we've become accustomed to suicide bombings. We read about suicide bombings often in the news. But at that time, that was really a novel attack. It was, I think, widely assumed that Iran was responsible, but Iran shrewdly operated

• 25:07Speaker 05

  via proxy, they tried not to leave fingerprints. And, you know, the attack was blamed on a group called Islamic Jihad, which is widely thought to be essentially the precursor to Lebanese Hezbollah.

• 25:20Speaker 06

  Hezbollah was created to fight Israel,

• 25:25Speaker 06

  whose army invaded and occupied the country.

• 25:27Speaker 05

  The emergence of a group called Hezbollah, the "Party of God", was essentially a byproduct of two momentous events. One was the 1979 Iranian Revolution, and the other was the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon. And so, as a result of these two things, all of a sudden, the Shia community in Lebanon had an enormous, very wealthy, external patron.

• 25:50Speaker 06

  It is a secretive militant movement of the Shia sect of Islam.

• 25:54Speaker 05

  Largely funded and armed by Iran. Iran, after the revolution, defined itself in opposition to the United States and in opposition to Israel. And so you started to see an emergence of Shia radicalism in Lebanon, which Iran was harnessing. And Lebanon is a country in which America doesn't have enormous strategic assets. It's a very small country on the Mediterranean, but it doesn't have oil resources like Saudi Arabia. So the major reason for America's presence in Lebanon to do peacekeeping and be there as a buffer for our key regional ally, which is Israel.

• 26:39Speaker 04

  There are no words to properly express our outrage, and I think the outrage of all Americans.

• 26:46Speaker 05

  After the bombings of the Marine barracks, I think it caused a real debate within the Reagan administration. Some wanted to pin the blame on Iran. Others said there was no clear proof. And I think others also realized that if America were to blame Iran directly, then it would warrant action. If you're going to blame Iran for a massive attack on the US Marines, you can't just sit on your hands afterwards. You have to do something about it. And so I think for that reason, there was actually a reluctance within the Reagan administration to too aggressively blame Iran because America didn't really want to fight that war.

• 27:33Speaker 05

  And in hindsight, there are historians who actually criticized the Reagan administration because they say by not responding to that massive attack by Iran against the US Marines, it essentially emboldened Iran. Iran realized that actually suicide bombings can be quite effective, truck bombings can be quite effective, and eventually led to America's pullout from Lebanon.

• 27:57Speaker 04

  Ambassadors Habib and Draper, who were presently in Beirut, will continue to press in negotiations for the earliest possible total withdrawal of all external forces.

• 28:07Speaker 05

  Because Americans, looking at their television set, said, why are our sons and daughters dying in Beirut, Lebanon? What are we doing there? What are our interests? And so I think this is a tactic which Iran has used quite effectively, essentially testing the resolve of the United States and in some ways, conducting acts of radicalism and terror, which will bring in the American public and the American public, you know, calling for further restraint or a pullout from the Middle East.

• 29:01Speaker 04

  My fellow citizens, at this hour, American and coalition forces are in the early stages of military operations to disarm Iraq, to free its people, and to defend the world from grave danger. On my orders...

• 29:16Speaker 05

  When the Iraq War was launched in 2003, one of the Bush administration's underlying goals for the Iraq War was to create Shiite democracy in Baghdad, which could then spread to Tehran and undermine the legitimacy of the Iranian regime. And so for that reason, Iran had every incentive to try to sabotage America's efforts in Iraq if they believed that the Iraq War was intended to eventually overthrow the Iranian government. And so for that reason, from the beginning of the Iraq War, Iran was somewhat cautious the first year or so.

• 30:01Speaker 05

  But then you started to see Iran ramping up attacks on American troops, using proxies, using their Shia militia proxies in Iraq.

• 30:20Speaker 05

  Iran has essentially tried to franchise the Hezbollah model. You know, I call it the McDonaldization of Hezbollah, taking that Shia militia franchise in Lebanon and using it in other contexts, whether that's to help fight for your ally Bashar Assad in Syria, Iraqi Shia militias to fight against ISIS and project Iranian power in Iraq, and now in Yemen.

• 30:49Speaker 01

  A second day of airstrikes inside Yemen by Saudi jets bombing Iranian-backed Houthi Shia militias which have taken control of the country.

• 31:01Speaker 05

  And when we're talking about countries in the region which are experiencing either civil wars or power vacuums, Iran is able to fill those voids much more effectively with these Shia proxies on the ground.

• 31:16Speaker 01

  The top US commander for the Middle East worries about what could be Tehran's bid for superpower status.

• 31:24Speaker 05

  So I think a major asymmetric advantage that Iran has over both the United States and US allies like Saudi Arabia, for example, is that almost all Shia radicals in the region, let's say from India to Lebanon, are willing to go out and kill, if not die, for the Islamic Republic of Iran, whereas almost all Sunni radicals in the Middle East are deathly opposed to the United States and they want to actually overthrow the government of Saudi Arabia. You know, groups like al-Qaeda and ISIS are Sunni radicals which are not Saudi Arabia's proxy, they're actually Saudi Arabia's adversary.

• 32:06Speaker 05

  And so despite the fact that Shia are outnumbered by Sunni by four, five to one in the region, Iran has a monopoly over Shia radicalism. And increasingly, not only does Iran operate via proxy, but its proxies also have plausible deniability because they're not necessarily doing the fighting themselves, they're using IEDs, they're using drones, they're using mines. So it gives Iran two layers of deniability.

• 32:45Speaker 01

  Coming up, how one computer virus started a cyber arms race.

• 33:08Speaker 01

  This is Giselle from Portland, Oregon, and you're listening to Throughline on NPR. And we recently discovered the show, but it has quickly become my favorite podcast. In these difficult political times, I'm just so grateful for the show and the context that it gives to really complex contemporary issues. It's a good reminder that nothing exists in a vacuum. So, thanks.

• 33:34Speaker 00

  Stay tuned for the following announcements and messages from our sponsors. This message comes from Sony Pictures Classics, proudly presenting the acclaimed new crime thriller, The Only Living Pickpocket in New York. The Daily Beast raves, "A perfect crime film." John Turturro gives a career-best performance. Also starring Giancarlo Esposito, Tatiana Maslany, Will Price, and Steve Buscemi. See the film that the L.A. Times calls "instantly classic." Opens only in theaters October 23 in New York and Los Angeles. Nationwide, October 30.

• 34:06Speaker 00

  This message comes from Mint Mobile. While others have been hiking your bill, Mint Mobile has kept their wireless plans starting at $15 a month. Switch to Mint Mobile and get three months of premium wireless service for $15 a month. Go to mintmobile.com/switch. Upfront payment of $45 for three-month plan required. $15 per month equivalent. New customer offer, first three months only, then full-price plan options available. Taxes and fees extra. This message comes from Midi Health. Most women never get real answers about their hormonal health. Midi is changing that with virtual care covered by most major insurances. Understand your hormones. Visit joinmidi.com to book your first visit today.

• 34:51Speaker 01

  A digital weapon. An Iranian facility has been targeted for cyber attack. The second time it's happened in less than a year. The worst cyber attack in history. The race between Iranian officials trying to build their nuclear program and outside forces trying to stop it is getting more intense.

• 35:07Speaker 04

  This new era of warfare has already begun.

• 35:11Speaker 01

  We have to go all the way back to around 1996, mid 90s is when the US started to contemplate the development of offensive cyber capabilities.

• 35:25Speaker 01

  And right around that time, Iran obtained a batch of illicit uranium hexafluoride gas from China.

• 35:35Speaker 01

  And so that's sort of what we can sort of trace the beginnings of the Iranian illicit nuclear program. They, of course, had been watching Iraq prior to that and seeing that Iraq was looking at nuclear capabilities. And of course, Iran and Iraq were longtime enemies. And so Iran's view was if Iraq is looking at obtaining nuclear weapons capability, then we should also be engaging in that as well.

• 36:06Speaker 01

  So around 2000, Iran broke ground on the facility at Natanz. US intelligence wasn't, you know, 100% positive about what that facility was going to be, but they were watching it.

• 36:20Speaker 01

  So, February 2003, the United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency, which is the agency that oversees or monitors nuclear programs around the world, IAE inspectors make their first visit to Natanz.

• 36:35Speaker 06

  And now we return to Iran, where today UN inspectors have visited a site used-

• 36:39Speaker 01

  And they discovered that Iran is actually much farther along in the program than anyone suspected. They already had a pilot plant set up at Natanz. They had some centrifuges there that they were beginning to assemble. They had said that they hadn't enriched any batch of uranium hexafluoride gas yet, but that turned out to be incorrect.

• 37:04Speaker 01

  This first process of enriching that first batch was really the beginning step of having enough uranium hexafluoride gas to build a bomb. This is the initial step of getting them to that bomb. And there was a lot of panic at that point to halt the program until IAEA inspectors could obtain more information. So there was a lot of pressure put on Iran to stop everything. The head of the United Nations Nuclear Watchdog, the IAEA, in talks with Iranian officials in Tehran. The breakthrough. Iran surprisingly actually agreed. Throughout 2003, 2004, and then something changed in 2005.

• 37:49Speaker 01

  Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was elected president of Iran. And shortly after that, Iran announced that it was done with the cessation agreement, and it was no longer going to remain at this stasis position. And it was going to go forward with enriching its first batch of uranium hexafluoride gas. And so you can imagine the panic in Israel when that happens. Jump forward about six months, on January, February 2006 now, Iran announces that they

• 38:29Speaker 01

  have enriched their first batch of uranium hexafluoride gas in that pilot plant at Natanz. And then they announced that they had perfected the enrichment process, and they were going to begin installing the first centrifuges in the actual enrichment plants. Israel, of course, was focused on trying to bomb the facility. They had come to the US for permission from President Bush to launch a strike against the Natanz facility, and the US denied that permission, and instead had this alternative plan that they wanted to do. So between February 2006 and February 2007, the US is developing and testing Stuxnet.

• 39:21Speaker 01

  Was what we call a worm. Part of it was virus, part of it was a worm. A worm is malware that will travel from machine to machine without any human interaction. So the initial release, of course, is done by a human. But once a worm finds a vulnerable system, it will infect that system. And then it will search automatically for any other system connected to that system on an internal network or over the Internet and travel to that system and infect that as well.

• 39:53Speaker 01

  So you've got this Natanz facility that has critical computers that are air-gapped from the Internet. And also, the facility itself is physically protected. They had Three outer perimeter security walls. Anti-aircraft guns. Earthen berms entirely hide the facility from view. Around the facility, they had fences, they had guards, armed guards, all of that. So the only way that you could get Stuxnet into where you needed to go was to have someone walk it in, deliver it, either wittingly or unwittingly. And we know that the first version of Stuxnet could only be spread via USB sticks. It's quite possible that the first version of Stuxnet, because it didn't have a lot

• 40:37Speaker 01

  of spreading capabilities in it, was spread by an inside mole.

• 40:44Speaker 01

  They probably had close access inside Natanz. So 2007, they unleashed that first version of Stuxnet. It was a partnership between the US and Israel. Their aim wasn't to, it wasn't catastrophic damage. They didn't want to destroy all of the centrifuges. They wanted to simply stop Iran from obtaining enough enriched uranium gas to have a bomb. Iran had a limited supply of uranium hexafluoride gas that it had purchased from China. And they had a limited supply of materials that they could use to manufacture new centrifuges. And so the goal with Stuxnet was to destroy some of the gas and some of the centrifuges in order to buy time for diplomacy and sanctions to catch up.

• 41:33Speaker 01

  When Stuxnet first gets on to that S7417 PLC, it doesn't cause its sabotage right away. It sits there for a period of time, recording the normal operation of those centrifuges and storing that information. And it just keeps storing and storing for days. And when the sabotage kicks in, it takes that information about the normal operations that it stored, and it now feeds that back to the monitoring stations. So while the valves are closed and the pressure is increasing inside the centrifuges, the engineers at the monitoring stations are seeing that everything is normal. All the valves are open. Pressure is normal. Heat is normal. Nothing is wrong. And so they wouldn't have seen the sabotage is happening.

• 42:18Speaker 01

  What they would have seen, however, is they would have seen that they were losing gas. They would have seen eventually the end result is that the centrifuges start breaking down. But they wouldn't have known if the problem was the machinery itself. Maybe the centrifuges were faulty. The equipment was faulty. That would have been their first focus.

• 42:39Speaker 01

  And Stuxnet did one other thing. In addition to feeding that false information to the monitoring stations, Stuxnet froze the safety mechanism on the system. So these automated safety mechanisms were designed to detect if the pressure inside the centrifuges increases, if the heat increases, if they start spinning out of control. And if it sees that a system is getting out of a safe condition, it's supposed to automatically shut down those centrifuges to prevent them from being destroyed or ruined. But Stuxnet stopped the safety mechanism from working.

• 43:17Speaker 01

  So Iran was confused. They didn't know what was happening.

• 43:37Speaker 01

  This is a covert operation, and a covert operation has to be authorized by the sitting president, and the sitting president was leaving. We had an election in 2008, and we see in the code that Stuxnet is designed to halt during this temporary phase of when we are losing the sitting president. And in January 2009, Obama's coming into office, and he meets with President Bush. And during this period, Bush explains to him this covert operation, which we now know is called Olympic Games. And he explains what's happening and what it's designed to do, and tells him that it's

• 44:17Speaker 01

  not, it hasn't achieved its full purpose yet, and encourages Obama to reauthorize the Olympic Games program. And Obama does. And we already see in January, the attackers are getting prepared to unleash the second version of their assault. And throughout 2009, it's causing its sabotage. And we actually see signs of the sabotage externally, but we don't know what it is. The International Atomic Energy Agency is sending inspectors to the Natan's facility on average about twice a month. And they're sending back reports to their headquarters in Vienna. And those reports are saying that Iran is having problems with its centrifuges.

• 44:58Speaker 01

  Those inspectors start noticing not just that Iran is having problems, but they're actually removing centrifuges now. So it's not just that they've stopped spinning centrifuges, that they've taken gas out of centrifuges, they're actually removing centrifuges from the cascades. And they're sending this back in the report, and that's the first sign that Iran has given up. They don't know what's going on. They're checking the equipment, they're checking everything, and yet Stuxnet continues to operate, and it continues to engage in sabotage. And it's not until June 2010, Stuxnet has unleashed in another round in March and April 2010, and the March version is what got it caught.

• 45:41Speaker 01

  The March version had multiple spreading mechanisms attached to it, including that worm, and it spread wildly out of control.

• 45:54Speaker 01

  It started spreading to machines that weren't the targeted machines, spreading to any Windows machine that it can find, initially just in Iran. And it started causing problems on machines in Iran outside of the Tans. Someone in Iran who had systems that were, kept crashing and rebooting and crashing and rebooting. And they couldn't figure out what was going on. So they contacted their maker of their antivirus software, a company in Belarus called VirusBlock Ada. And VirusBlock Ada obtained remote access to some of those systems in Iran that were having problems. And they discovered some suspicious code that they believed was causing the machines to reboot, crash and reboot.

• 46:37Speaker 01

  And so they found this code and they started taking it apart. They immediately discovered that it was malware and that it was designed to spread to any Windows machine. So they contacted Microsoft because it was using a vulnerability in the Windows software. They contacted Microsoft to have that vulnerability patched. And then they had other files that were dropped onto the machine when it was infected, but those files were encrypted and they couldn't decrypt them. And they didn't have a lot of experience taking malware apart. So they made those files available to the rest of the security community. And that's when a company called Symantec stepped in and started reverse engineering that code.

• 47:20Speaker 01

  They were able to decrypt it and they knew that it was designed for sabotage. Until then, everyone had assumed that this was spyware, that this was conducting espionage. Experts say Stuxnet is an exceptionally sophisticated computer worm that attacks the software used to control automated systems. It's now been found in thousands of So if you can imagine from November 2007 all the way to November 2010, Stuxnet continued to operate unimpeded.

• 47:51Speaker 01

  Mahmoud Ahmadinejad blamed the Israelis and the US. But Iran didn't do what we expected them to do. They didn't go to the United Nations and complain, and they didn't retaliate, which they would have been in position to do legally.

• 48:08Speaker 01

  International law sort of limits what a nation can do when it's under digital attack like that. It says that you can you can take action to halt an attack that's current, but that any sort of retaliation that you do has to be proportional to the attack itself.

• 48:28Speaker 01

  And so Iran was pretty limited, and also going to the United Nations, Iran is not very powerful in the United Nations. So it knew that it wasn't going to get the support or backing that it needed to punish the US or Israel. They've never seen anything like it, a massive onslaught of cyber attacks on America's biggest banks, slowing down their websites, even forcing some to shut down temporarily, costing them money. Stuxnet was proof of concept for any nation, to see that digital capabilities like this are a viable alternative. And so what that has done is it's opened up this new kind of warfare where it's lowered the bar of the actors who can engage in it. Senator Joe Lieberman, then chairman of the Homeland Security Committee, said, "I think this was done by Iran.

• 49:13Speaker 01

  It's likely retaliation for previous cyber attacks on Iran and for other things." When you drop a conventional weapon, your victim can't pick up those pieces of the weapon and reconstitute it and send it back at you. The difference with a digital weapon is when you're launching a digital weapon, it's fully contained, and all the code is there. And so you're sending the blueprint for the weapon to your victim, and all the victim has to do is reverse engineer that weapon in the way that semantic reverse engineered it, and study it, and design it in a way that they can send it back to you. And so what we did was we threw stones from a glass house. In the US, we've always had this advantage of geography.

• 49:58Speaker 01

  We have this distance from our adversaries. But digital war fairy races that distance. Now the front line is on businesses and critical infrastructure here. It's brought the war home.

• 50:22Speaker 01

  That was Kim Zetter. She's a writer for Wired Magazine and author of the book Countdown to Zero Day: Stuxnet and the Launch of the World's First Digital Weapon. If you want to learn more about the US and Iran, check out our episode Four Days in August, which is about the CIA-backed coup that first brought the Shah to power in 1953. And next week on Throughline, we're turning our attention to Cuba, its revolution, and where the US could intervene next. I don't know if the regime is going to fall, but what I'm really sure is that

• 50:59Speaker 03

  in 2026, something is going to happen with the regime.

• 51:08Speaker 03

  That's it for this week's show. I'm Ramtin Arablouei.

• 51:10Speaker 01

  I'm Randa Abdel Fattah, and you've been listening to Throughline from NPR.

• 51:15Speaker 03

  This show was produced by me.

• 51:17Speaker 01

  And me and.

• 51:19Speaker 06

  Jamie York.

• 51:19Speaker 00

  Jordana Hochman.

• 51:20Speaker 06

  Lawrence Wu. Laine Kaplan-Levinson. Okay, Smizing Sombra.

• 51:24Speaker 00

  Nyjery Eaton.

• 51:26Speaker 01

  Music for this episode was composed by Ramtin and his band Drop Electric, which includes.

• 51:31Speaker 00

  Anya Mizani. Naveed Marvi.

• 51:34Speaker 03

  Cho Fujiwara. Thanks also to Aida Porasad.

• 51:38Speaker 01

  And Anya Grundmann. And to Entuzira, Sarah Wyman, and Amber Chee. If you like something you heard or you have an idea, please write us at [email protected].

• 51:50Speaker 03

  Thanks for listening.

• 52:00Speaker 00

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