Balloon Riots

Ballooning became a huge fad starting in the late 18th century, and there was a surprising amount of rioting associated with it. Fervor, excitement, and intoxication in some instances, meant that balloon events were prone to get out of control.

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  Hello and welcome to the podcast. I'm Tracy V. Wilson. And I'm Holly Frey. Listener Josiah, who has sent us just a ton of very good episode suggestions, sent in a request for an episode on the 1819 balloon riot. We do have a number of episodes on balloons and ballooning, including the Montgolfier brothers and Sophie Blanchard and S.A. Andre's attempt to get to the North Pole by balloon. And we have mentioned in those episodes that balloons became a huge fad starting in the late 18th century and into the 19th century.

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  I don't think we have ever talked about how much rioting was associated with that. We have talked more about excitement and not about tearing stuff apart. This 1819 incident that Josiah requested was not the only riot to talk about. In other words, we are going to cover several in this episode, but it is not all of the balloon riots. Over the course of my research, I found various like mentions of other riots as kind of asides or mentioned in footnotes or a newspaper article would say blah, blah, blah, similarly to the thing that happened this other time.

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  But then I was not able to find a lot of detail about that other time briefly mentioned. It's also possible that there were other more documented balloon riot incidents that I just didn't happen to stumble over while working on this. These riots all involved large balloons filled with either hot air or a lighter than air gas like hydrogen or coal gas, which is a mix of mostly hydrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide. The ones that we're talking about took place in France, the UK, the US, and Australia. But the earliest precursors to these kinds of balloons came from another part of the world. They date back to the 3rd century BCE in China.

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  These were flying lanterns, also called sky lanterns, that were made from paper and open at the bottom. A candle or some other source of flame suspended under the opening heated the air inside, causing the lantern to float. Sky lanterns are quite small. You can launch them from your hands. And by the 18th century, various scientists and inventors were trying to figure out how to use that same principle to make much larger balloons. The first successful launches of balloons that were big enough to carry human beings took place in France. After testing various materials and designs, brothers Joseph Michel and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier

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  made a balloon from cloth and paper that had a diameter of about 33 feet, or 10 meters. They lit a fire under the opening of this balloon to fill it with hot air, and they successfully sent it aloft on June 4, 1783. They did not have anybody aboard that first time. That balloon stayed in the air for about 10 minutes. On September 19, they sent a duck, a rooster, and a sheep up in a slightly smaller balloon, and all of those animals returned to earth safely. Hooray. From there, the Montgolfier brothers tried tethered balloon flights with people onboard.

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  And then their first untethered flight with a human crew was on November 21, 1783. We talked about the Montgolfier brothers in more detail in our episode on them. That ran as a Saturday classic on January 28, 2023. While the Montgolfier brothers were working on hot air balloons, other people were working on balloons filled with some other gas or gas mixture. Professor Jacques Charles commissioned brothers Anne Jean Robert and Nicolas Louis Robert, who is sometimes also called Marie-Noelle Robert, to build a balloon. They took a demonstration flight from the Champs-D'Amour in August of 1783.

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  This was a varnished silk balloon filled with hydrogen gas. They made that hydrogen gas by pouring sulfuric acid onto iron filings. This balloon successfully went aloft without a crew, but from there it drifted to the northeast of Paris. When it landed near the village of Jeunesse, people who didn't know what it was reportedly attacked it with things like sticks and pitchforks. On December 1 of that year, Nicolas Louis and Jacques successfully went aloft themselves in a hydrogen balloon, which was launched from the Tuileries Gardens. Within a year, more than 180 balloon launches had taken place all around Europe, often before just enormous crowds.

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  When the Montgolfier brothers sent those animals aloft, an estimated 130,000 people had been watching, including King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. When Robert and Charles took their first flight, it was reportedly before a crowd of 400,000 people, which would have been more than half the population of Paris. And people were fascinated. Letters and diary entries from the late 18th century are full of references to balloons and which launches people had seen, and how big the crowds were, and what the balloon looked like. This includes numerous letters from American visitors who were in France for the negotiations of the Treaty of Paris

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  that formally ended the Revolutionary War. So that includes Benjamin Franklin. Balloon hats for ladies came into fashion with puffy crowns and wide brims, and balloons were emblazoned on every kind of souvenir imaginable. A broadside called Balloon Wish, printed in Boston, read, quote, "In this wild, romantic age, what fantastic whims engage? High and low, and old and young, all with balloon madness wrung." Balloon hats and frying pans, balloon ribbons, balloon fans, balloon gauzes, balloon caps, balloon hoops, or balloon traps. Balloons and balloon launches were also depicted in stories, novels, poems,

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  plays, and visual artwork. As an example, in 1784, the Covent Garden Theater, which we just talked about in October, staged a play called Harlequin Jr. or The Magic Sestis, in which past podcast subject Joseph Grimaldi was supposed to handle a real floating balloon that was scaled down for use on the stage. However, the theater scrapped this part of the show after deciding it was, quote, "very offensive and in some degree dangerous in the confined air of the theater." That decision makes sense because they had to burn material under this balloon to inflate it. In the theater just seemed like a bad

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  idea, given the known propensity of theaters to catch on fire. In the theater, uh, lit by candlelight at this point. So if the balloon fell in the wrong place, double trouble. Uh, the culture in parts of Europe was so saturated with balloons that some people actually got sick of hearing about them almost immediately. In September of 1783, English author and playwright Samuel Johnson wrote a letter to Sir Joshua Reynolds that said in part, quote, "I have three letters in this day, all about the balloon. I could have been content with one. Do not write about the balloon, whatever else you may think proper to say." Uh, that cracks me up. It's also kind of sad that he died a few months later.

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  So one of his final frustrations was balloons. Balloons.

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  The term "balloonomania" appeared in writing for the first time two years later in a letter from past podcast subject Horace Walpole to Madame Duhdeffant, after Jean Francois Pilate de Rosier died in a balloon crash while trying to cross the English Channel.

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  Walpole wrote, quote, "The balloonomania is, I think, a little chilled, not extinguished by Rosier's catastrophe." Walpole also expressed concerns about whether balloons would be used for military purposes, and that was something people had started thinking about basically right after those very earliest launches. We talked about that more in our episode on the balloons of World War II that came out in March of 2023. This 18th century fascination with balloons was interconnected with ongoing discoveries in the sciences that had started to evolve in the 16th century and the European intellectual movement that has come to be known as the Age of Enlightenment.

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  People were similarly fascinated with experiments with electricity that were also happening around this same time. By necessity, balloon launches were the most public of all the various experiments that were going on. The balloons were huge, and even if they were launched from some out-of-the-way place, people could still see them in the air. People made and launched hot air and gas balloons in all kinds of places beyond just England and France and beyond just Europe. But in these two countries, there was kind of a competitive rivalry going on. But there were also some differences in how ballooning developed in those two countries. A lot of balloon experiments in France were under the auspices of the French Academy

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  of Sciences, and that meant that until the French Revolution, they were effectively being overseen by the scientific community and ultimately the monarch. But in England, the Royal Society didn't take up that same level of interest in ballooning, so the ballooning community in England was more made up of adventurers who might work with scientists or allow scientists to bring instruments onboard, but they could be focused a lot more on excitement and spectacle and showmanship than on research and discovery.

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  But it was clear from the beginning that balloon launches could spark a backlash if they did not go as planned. On January 16th, 1784, just weeks after humans had successfully flown in balloons for the first time, Benjamin Franklin wrote a letter to Dutch scientist Jan Inghenhouse. Franklin had previously sent Inghenhouse everything he had learned about balloons, and he said that if Inghenhouse sent someone to France, Franklin was sure they could learn whatever they needed to figure out how to make one for themselves. From there, he said, quote, "If you undertake to make one, I think it extremely proper and necessary to send an ingenious man here for that purpose. Otherwise, for want of

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  attention to some particular circumstance or of being acquainted with it, the experiment might miscarry, which, being in an affair of so much public expectation, would have bad consequences, draw upon you a great deal of censure, and affect your reputation. It is a serious thing to draw out from their affairs all the inhabitants of a great city and its environs, and a disappointment makes them angry." At Bordeaux lately, a person who pretended to send up a balloon and had received money of many people, not being able to make it rise, the populace were so exasperated that they pulled down his house and had liked to have killed him. We will talk about some other exasperated populuses after a sponsor break.

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  In 1784, printmaker Jean-François Geninay, who had started calling himself an artist-physicist, worked with Abbé Laurent Antoine Muyolin, who lectured in physics, to build a balloon. Their design actually involved three balloons. There was the primary hot air balloon and a gas-filled balloon that would float above it, and then a balloon filled with cold air that would hang below it. They wanted to study the atmosphere and the behavior of the three balloons and the gases within them from the gondola that was suspended below. They had financed their project primarily by selling tickets to the launch, and that was the case for a lot of balloonists.

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  Even like the hardcore scientific balloonists, a lot of times were funding things with ticket sales. They planned to take off from Luxembourg Gardens in Paris on July 11, 1784. Although they had made some successful test flights, this public launch failed when they were not able to adequately fill the hot air balloon. It's not clear whether the balloon caught fire during the attempt to fill it or if angry onlookers set it alight, but it did catch fire, and once it was burning, outraged ticket holders burst into the launch area, tearing pieces off of the balloon and breaking up the viewing stands to throw into the fire. One of the people who witnessed this was Benjamin Franklin Batch,

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  grandson of Benjamin Franklin, whose diary entry about the day described some of the carried-off balloon pieces as big enough to make a mattress. Afterwards, Muyolin and Geninay were ridiculed in the popular press, including people writing satirical songs about them.

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  The September 8, 1819 riot that inspired this episode took place in Vauxhall Gardens. Not the ones in London, but gardens in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania that had been named for them. I think people in England also say that more like Vauxhall. The balloon belonged to a French aeronaut known as Monsieur Michel, who was going to go up in the balloon and then parachute down from it. This was just a few days after a failed balloon launch by a different aeronaut in Camden. And Camden is just on the other side of the Delaware River from Philadelphia. So a lot of people from Philadelphia had gone to Camden to try to watch,

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  and they had not been able to see a balloon. Vauxhall Garden was surrounded by a tall wooden fence, and hundreds of people had paid a dollar apiece, significant money in these days, to come inside to watch. People who did not have a dollar or just didn't want to pay it, tried to get a glimpse from the outside. And the crowd included people who traveled in from Camden or from other places around Philadelphia. The balloon was big enough that the top would be visible from the ground outside the fence once it was inflated. And people also climbed onto roofs and into trees to get a better view. Counting the ticket holders and the people outside the fence, roughly 30,000 people were estimated to be there.

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  Monsieur Michel started filling the balloon with gas at about 2:00 PM. And at 7:00 PM, it still was not ready. According to an article in the Rhode Island American, published about a week after the incident, one of the reasons it was filling so slowly is that an impatient spectator had thrown a rock at it, and that rock had made a hole that was continually letting gas out of the balloon. On the other hand, the Washington DC Daily National Intelligence Sir said this rock puncture happened after the balloon had been somewhat filled at least and was partially aloft. Most of the documentation I found on this whole incident was in news reports and all of them are slightly different from one another.

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  Vendors were selling food and drink at this event and after a while, a lot of the spectators were intoxicated. A detail that most of the accounts agree upon is that a boy in his mid teens climbed the fence. In some accounts, one of the garden attendants struck and killed him. In others, the boy struck someone inside the fence with a stick and that person either hit him back or hit a couple of children who happened to be nearby. Rumors spread that either this teenager or a young child had been killed, or maybe one of them really had been killed. All of this unclear. Whatever exactly the details, it sparked a riot in which the onlookers

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  from the outside of the fence burst through it, tearing the balloon to shreds and lighting a lot of the garden on fire, including its pavilion and benches. Musicians had been hired to play for the day and rioters smashed their instruments. People robbed the vendors of their food and their alcohol and other wares and somebody stole all the ticket money, which was about $800. Multiple people were injured and by 9pm, Vauxhall Gardens was basically destroyed. Its owner sold the property in the aftermath and it changed hands a couple of times before eventually being rebuilt and reopened as an outdoor theater.

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  In 1838, an ascent that was supposed to take place in Cremorin Gardens in London similarly went wrong.

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  The event was described this way in a 1907 book about the gardens. Quote, "It was announced to ascend on May 24 and people began to assemble in the grounds at noon. By 7 o'clock, there were nearly 5,000 spectators and behind a huge tarpaulin, the balloon was supposed to be in process of inflation. The balloon was attached to a platform in the middle of the lake and its peculiarity was that it had to be inflated by chopped straw burnt in a brazier under the orifice of the bag. The size of the furnace had been miscalculated and after the balloon had twice been set on fire, the intrepid aeronaut decided not to ascend. Some of the spectators considered that at any rate the

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  balloon could be punished and a well-directed volley of stones soon left the monster prostrate on the lake. An attempt was made to drag it on shore and tear it in pieces, but at this moment, the cord broke. Some of the rowdier spirits now sought out the proprietor, hoping to duck him in one of his own ponds. And when this failed, they attacked the glass planes of the Lion's Conservatory." Does not seem like a great idea, but suddenly the police appeared and Vesuvius burst forth in all of its fury. And when the fireworks were over, the visitors quietly dispersed.

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  In case that last bit is not totally clear, this park had a panorama of Mount Vesuvius and they set off fireworks from there at night and they basically started the fireworks display to try to get everybody to focus on something else. A riot in Sydney, Australia on December 18th, 1856 was also similar. French balloonist Pierre Magre hoped to make Australia's first successful balloon flight. Roughly 5,000 people had gathered by 2:00 PM, which is when he was supposed to start inflating the balloon with hot air. But he didn't actually get started until 3:00 PM and the crowd continued to grow and to become more and more impatient as the balloon slowly filled. People started

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  to doubt that it was even possible to inflate the balloon because it seemed like the material was just too heavy. They added more fuel to the fire. Things started to move a little bit faster and eventually the balloon did start to ascend. But the cords that had been used to tether it were dangling and one of them got caught in something. The effort to untangle that trailing cord wound up releasing a lot of the hot air out of the balloon. As the balloon started to deflate, people from the less expensive outer part of the viewing area rushed to the inside. Either the balloon caught fire or someone set it on fire. I feel like that's a frequent refrain in this episode.

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  Somebody had possibly kicked the fire that had been used to fill it. And then people started chanting, "Burn the balloon, burn the balloon." The fire spread to the tent where the wine and straw used for fuel had been stored, and that caught fire as well. Magra was forced to flee. During the early stages of its inflation, this balloon had been suspended from a cord that was draped between two poles. And in this chaos, people started knocking down the poles. One of them hit two children as it fell. 11-year-old Thomas Downs was reported to have died of a skull fracture two days after this.

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  An inquest found Magra to be responsible, describing him as the, quote, "perpetrator of the sham balloon incident," and censoring him. A little more than a year later, on February 1st, 1858, Joseph Dean went aloft in a balloon filled with coal gas, taking off from Cremorne Gardens in Melbourne, Australia, and succeeding where Pierre Magra had not. Then, on February 15th, Charles Henry Brown did the same. Both men had been hired by George Coppin, who was a theater entrepreneur who also funded both of the ascents. But according to Brown's account, this crowd was angry with him when he returned.

• 27:20Speaker 03

  This might have been because they got bored, since he had taken off really late in the day, or it could have been because Coppin had offered a reward for the safe return of the balloon if something went wrong with the launch. People might have wanted to claim that reward even though nothing had gone wrong and Brown was still in possession of the balloon. In Brown's words, quote, "On my descent, I was treated in a most brutal manner by the people assembled. Why, I know not. But they tore the hair from my head, bruised, crushed, and almost suffocated me, besides damaging the balloon by tugging at and trampling on it. This does not apply to Mr. Hugh Peck of Collingwood, to whom I am under the obligation

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  of returning the balloon to Cremorne in safety and declining to receive any remuneration for his trouble. Mr. Needham of the Gas Works assisted in extricating me from the savages." Probably the most thoroughly documented and well-known balloon riot took place in Leicester, England in 1864, and we will get to that after a sponsor break.

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  other? Tune in to find out. Listen on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts.

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• 31:27Speaker 03

  The 1864 Leicester Balloon Riot involved a balloonist who had become particularly well-known because of an earlier incident that did not involve a riot. That was Henry Tracy Coxwell. Coxwell was born in 1819 and had trained originally as a dentist, but he had shifted a lot of his focus to ballooning after taking his first balloon flight at the age of 25. He undertook numerous balloon launches, primarily in and around London, including in London's Vauxhall Gardens and Cremorin Gardens, which were ticketed money-making entertainment events.

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  This earlier incident also involved Dr. James Glacier. Glacier was born in 1809, and he was a meteorologist who wanted to conduct experiments aboard balloons. He undertook 28 balloon ascents during his career, many of them with Coxwell, often with funding from the British Association for the Advancement of Science. The two men had launched from Wolverhampton, England on September 5th, 1862. Glacier was equipped with photographic plates, wet bulb thermometers, a hygrometer, and other instruments to study the atmosphere and weather as they ascended to high altitudes.

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  They also had several pigeons aboard to see how those pigeons would fly at high altitudes. We don't really need to get into the detail, but only one of the pigeons seems to have survived this journey. By 1:40 PM, they had reached an elevation of about four miles, or more than 21,000 feet. They continued to ascend, and about 10 minutes after that, Glacier realized he could no longer see the mercury column in the wet bulb thermometer, or the hands of his watch, or any other fine detail on any of his instruments. Glacier asked Coxwell for help, but just then, the balloon's valve line became entangled, and Coxwell had to fix it.

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  Glacier had already noticed that Coxwell seemed winded, and Glacier had attributed that to the physical work that he was having to do around the balloon. But shortly after Coxwell went to fix this valve line, in Glacier's words, quote, "I laid my arm upon the table, possessed of its full vigor, but on being desirous of using it, I found it powerless. It must have lost its power momentarily. Trying to move the other arm, I found it powerless also. Then I tried to shake myself and succeeded, but I seemed to have no limbs. And looking at the barometer, my head fell over my left shoulder. I struggled and shook my body again, but could not move my arms.

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  Getting my head upright for an instant, only it fell on my right shoulder. Then I fell backwards, my back resting against the side of the car, and my head on its edge." In this position, my eyes were directed to Mr. Coxwell in the ring. When I shook my body, I seemed to have full power over the muscles of the back and considerably so over those of the neck, but none over either my arms or my legs. As in the case of the arms, so all muscular power was lost in an instant from my back and neck. I dimly saw Mr. Coxwell and endeavor to speak but could not. In an instant, intense darkness overcame me so that the optic nerve lost power suddenly,

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  but I was still conscious with as active a brain as at the present moment whilst writing this. I thought I had been seized with asphyxia and believed I should experience nothing more as death would come unless we speedily descended. Glacier then lost consciousness and a few minutes later became aware of Coxwell trying to rouse him. Coxwell had nearly lost consciousness as well and had started to lose control of his limbs. Coxwell had realized that they had to get to a lower altitude and since he couldn't use his hands, he had managed to open the valve to release some of the gas from the balloon by grabbing the cord with his teeth. Coxwell still couldn't use his hands by the time Glacier regained consciousness and Glacier

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  tried to treat them by pouring brandy over them. The last barometer reading that Glacier was able to record as they ascended suggested that at that point, they were at an altitude of about 29,000 feet. And then after that, he had lost consciousness. But they were still climbing when he lost consciousness and they are estimated to have reached an altitude of 37,000 feet or just over seven miles. In other words, in the cruising altitude range for today's commercial airliners. Neither man fully understood what had happened to them physiologically at that elevation. But as word spread about the terrifying flight, it was obvious to everyone that they would have died if Coxwell had not managed to open that valve.

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  This experience did not discourage Glacier from his scientific pursuits on balloons, though. He got back to work almost immediately after regaining consciousness and 21 of his scientific balloon flights happened after this one. Almost two years later, on July 11th, 1864, Coxwell, who was famous from this earlier experience, planned a balloon ascent that was to take place at a foresters' fet at a racecourse in Leicester. The foresters are a friendly society, also known as a mutual aid society, which had been established as the Ancient Order of Foresters in 1834. For this, Coxwell was going to test a new balloon called the Britannia,

• 37:11Speaker 03

  and it was going to be attached to the car that he had used for his experimental flights with Glacier. The plan was for a group of passengers, including two women, to go aloft with him. Coxwell later wrote a letter to the editor at The Times describing what had happened. He noted that no real barrier had been erected around the launch site and that he had to, quote, "beg hard for a policeman to be present." He had heard that there were only eight on site for an event with an estimated 50,000 people. According to an eyewitness statement, no arrangements had been made for keeping the ground around the balloon clear. There was just a temporary barrier, which was quickly knocked down by the crowd, and that made it impossible for Coxwell

• 37:56Speaker 03

  to do what he needed to do with the balloon before the flight could even begin. According to Coxwell, quote, "Early in the afternoon, a gentleman, reported to be a provincial aeronaut, gave it out that the balloon then present was not my largest and newest balloon, but a small one. This was a cruel libel and aroused, I was told, an angry feeling among the visitors. The lack of policemen to maintain order soon manifested itself for, on a band entering the balloon ground, the boards were carried at once, and thousands of persons broke in and harassed my operations excessively. It was in vain that I entreated for and that several gentlemen succeeded in clearing an open space,

• 38:40Speaker 03

  the deficiency of strong barriers having afforded access. All subsequent attempts to stop the tide of human pressure proved unavailing."

• 38:51Speaker 03

  The crowd demanded that he take off immediately, but he couldn't. Some supports that had been put up to hold the balloon while it was being inflated needed to be taken down, but the crew that was supposed to do that wasn't even there. Coxwell threatened to let the gas out of the balloon unless the crowd got itself under control because they were creating a dangerous situation. Police officers arrived and they started trying to clear the area around the balloon, but when Coxwell started releasing the gas, the crowd became enraged and attacked it. There were also rumors that police officers had struck a woman. A police sergeant led Coxwell away from all of this, but in his words,

• 39:32Speaker 03

  quote, "My clothes were soon torn and then the cry was raised, rip him up, knock him in the head, finish him, et cetera, all of which would have inevitably been executed had I not followed the inspector's advice." The crowd set fire to the balloon car and tore the balloon to pieces. Many of these pieces were then sold as souvenirs. The balloon's hoop was not flammable and the crowd paraded it around the streets. Coxwell attributed this incident to a lack of foresight and not providing enough policemen for a forester's fett. He asked the foresters for compensation for this incident and for the destruction

• 40:14Speaker 03

  of his equipment, but because of the AIDS Society's rules, this wasn't something they could just do immediately. There was like a whole process that had to happen before giving away the society's money. Other people in Leicester raised funds totaling more than 800 pounds to try to compensate him. Although Glacier doesn't seem to have been involved in this ascension attempt, the destruction of the balloon and the car that he had used for his experiments did cause a setback in his meteorological research. He later returned to the sky in one of Coxwell's old balloons equipped with a new car, but it seems like the two men had a more personal falling out at some point after this.

• 40:56Speaker 03

  The details regarding that don't seem to be well documented. The 2019 movie, The Aeronauts, stars Eddie Redmayne as James Glacier, but Henry Tracy Coxwell is just not depicted in the movie. It seems like this was one of the last big balloon riots. Not because of some kind of change in the psychology and dynamics of sometimes drunken crowds, but because ballooning stopped being such a huge fad and it stopped drawing those kinds of crowds of expectant onlookers. And that is balloon riots.

• 41:32Speaker 03

  I have some listener mail to take us out. This actually is from a little bit ago. This is from Christie, who wrote after our episode on soap. Christie wrote and said, Dear Holly and Tracy, I love listening to the podcast during my commute. I probably only have my PhD in SYM IHC if I was the kind of student who skips classes because I've listened for a very long time, but I've also had a couple of year plus gaps. In your recent episode on soap, you mentioned an earlier not technically soap product related to wool. It's a bit of a tangent, but I thought you might enjoy hearing about suent fermentation. It's a method of cleaning raw wool that relies on fermentation of natural sweat and minerals

• 42:15Speaker 03

  in the wool with rainwater to create a cleaning substance. Supposedly also stinks like you wouldn't believe, so I may put off trying it until I have somewhere it wouldn't bother me to let it sit. Thank you so much for the work you put into thoughtfully selecting and researching topics, presenting them with care and sharing them in a way that is both personable and informative. As a pet tax, please see my 10-year-old dog, Zelda. While we usually say she is a Sheba Husky mix, looks like Sheba size of a husky, her adoption paperwork listed four different variations on breed mixes and a DNA test said she was a mutt, high percentage of Asian slash Arctic breeds and a moderate percentage of terrier. All my best, Christie.

• 42:59Speaker 03

  This is a cute little puppy dog. I am not good at describe. I'm like, what, what do I want to say about this dog? A kind of fox-like face and ears and a mostly kind of buff and tan color coat, looking very happy, sitting under some hydrangeas in bloom. Thank you so much for sending this dog picture. And about suent fermentation, I'd not a thing that I had ever heard of and in fact, misread when reading the email.

• 43:32Speaker 03

  Initially as sue it, which is not quite the same thing. Not at all the same thing, really. Um, if you would like to send us a note about this or any other podcasts, we're at historypodcast at iHeartRadio.com and you can subscribe to the show on the iHeart Radio app and anywhere else you like to get your podcasts.

• 43:57Speaker 03

  Stuff you missed in history class is a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts from iHeart Radio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen to your favorite shows.

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  A rare disease diagnosis can change your life, but it doesn't have to define your future. In season seven of Untold Stories: Life with a Severe Autoimmune Condition, host Martine Hackett continues the conversation with people living with MG, CIDP, and the broader rare disease community, exploring what comes after diagnosis through stories of hope, progress, and connection. Produced by Ruby Studio in partnership with Argenx. Listen on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts.

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  Zolair 150mg is a prescription medication used to treat food allergy in people one year of age and older to reduce allergic reactions due to accidental exposure to one or more foods. While taking Zolair, you should continue to avoid all foods to which you are allergic. Don't use if you are allergic to Zolair. Zolair may cause a severe, life-threatening allergic reaction called anaphylaxis. Tell your doctor if you ever had anaphylaxis. Get help right away if you have trouble breathing or if you have swelling of your throat or tongue. Zolair should not be used for the emergency treatment of allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis. Zolair is for maintenance use to reduce allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis, while avoiding food allergens. Serious side effects such as cancer, fever, muscle aches and rash, parasitic infection, or heart and circulation problems have been reported. Please see zolair.com for full prescribing information. Ask an allergist about Zolair. This is an advertisement for Zolair,

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  This is an iHeart Podcast. Guaranteed Human.