Why Some Ideas Change the World & Black Holes: Science’s Greatest Enigma - SYSK Choice

The lottery is one of the few games where everyone knows the odds are terrible—and millions of people play anyway. Why? It turns out there are some fascinating psychological reasons people buy lottery tickets, along with a few surprising facts about the odds and strategies that most players never consider. https://www.wired.com/video/watch/lottery-strategy When Uber launched, many people thought the idea was ridiculous. Let strangers drive you around in their personal cars? Airbnb faced similar skepticism. Why would anyone stay in a stranger's house? Yet these companies went on to reshape entire industries. The same is true of Twitter, Twitch, and many other breakthrough businesses. What separates ideas that change the world from ideas that never get off the ground? According to venture capitalist Mike Maples Jr., truly transformative companies don't succeed by being slightly better than the competition—they succeed by seeing the world differently. In this conversation, Mike explains the patterns behind history's most disruptive startups, why the best ideas often sound wrong at first, and what it takes to build something that changes the future. Mike is co-founder of Floodgate, one of Silicon Valley's premier seed-stage investment firms, host of the podcast Starting Greatness (https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/starting-greatness/id1488560647), and author of Pattern Breakers: Why Some Start-Ups Change the Future (https://amzn.to/3W8BXlT). Black holes may be the most mysterious objects in the universe. Their gravity is so powerful that not even light can escape. Yet despite their reputation as cosmic vacuum cleaners, black holes do much more than simply swallow things. In fact, astronomers now believe that the giant black hole at the center of our galaxy may have played a critical role in making life on Earth possible. How can something so destructive also be so important? Why does nearly every galaxy appear to have a supermassive black hole at its center? And what have scientists learned recently that is forcing them to rethink these extraordinary objects? Marcus Chown, former radio astronomer at Caltech and author of A Crack in Everything: How Black Holes Came in from the Cold and Took Cosmic Centre Stage (https://amzn.to/3W9cFUE), takes us on a fascinating tour of one of the strangest and most important discoveries in modern science. Most people rely on sunscreen as their primary defense against skin cancer—and for good reason. Yet skin cancer rates continue to rise. Researchers are increasingly discovering that sun protection may involve more than what you put on your skin. Emerging evidence suggests that what you put on your plate could also influence how your skin responds to the sun. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/08/well/eat/diet-skin-cancer-risk-melanoma.html PLEASE SUPPORT OUR SPONSORS AIR DOCTOR: Head to ⁠⁠⁠https://AirDoctorPro.com⁠⁠⁠ and use promo code SYSK to get $250 off select AirDoctor air purifiers, including the 3500, 4000, and 5500 models. Plus, you’ll receive a free 3year warranty! RULA: Thousands of people are already using Rula to get affordable, high-quality therapy that’s actually covered by insurance. Visit ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://Rula.com/sysk⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ to get started. QUINCE: Elevate your summer wardrobe. Go to ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://Quince.com/sysk⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ for free shipping on your order and 365-day returns. Now available in Canada, too! SHOPIFY: It's time to turn those "what ifs" into CHA CHING with Shopify Today! Sign up for your $1 per month trail and start selling today at ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://Shopify.com/sysk⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Speaker names marked ? are inferred from speaking time and the show’s known hosts — they are not voice-verified.

• 0:01Speaker 00

  Pink Pantheress here. Coach and Spotify are teaming up to bring music and style together, and they want you to be part of it. Grab your friends and head to the Tabby Tour, hitting cities around the country with live performances from special artists, exclusive experiences, and personalized products. And discover custom playlists on Spotify, booked just for you based on who you are and how you listen. Live your story with Coach. Learn more at coach.com.

• 0:30Mike Carruthers?

  Today on Something You Should Know, a few things worth knowing if you like to play the lottery. Then, how some new startup companies break the rules to find success, like Uber and Lyft.

• 0:42Speaker 02

  For example Lyft, they realized that if they asked the government of San Francisco, can we launch this service? They would have said no. And so they launched the service, knowing it was illegal, and then said, we'll get the law changed. Most people won't do that.

• 0:57Mike Carruthers?

  Also, sunscreen isn't the only thing to protect you from sun damage. Your diet matters too. And black holes, they're very mysterious, and they're all over the universe.

• 1:09Speaker 03

  It was the Hubble Space Telescope that made the discovery that there's a supermassive black hole in the heart of every galaxy. So there's two trillion galaxies in our universe, and there's a supermassive black hole in the center of each. Now, we don't know what they're doing there.

• 1:24Mike Carruthers?

  All this today on Something You Should Know.

• 1:29Mike Carruthers?

  Now, here's something that might be worth a minute of your time. How would you like $1,000 to spend on shopping? Especially with the holidays coming. Well, the people behind Shopify have a shopping site called shop.com. And to celebrate the new shop.com, they're giving away $1 million in Shop Cash. But not to one person. A thousand people will each win $1,000 in Shop Cash. And shop.com is actually a really clever idea. It brings lots of different stores together in one place. So, instead of bouncing around from website to website, you can search across stores, find what you're looking for,

• 2:14Mike Carruthers?

  and track your orders, all in one place. Clothes, electronics, gifts, things for the house, all kinds of stuff. And whether you win or not, it's worth knowing. But with 1,000 chances to win $1,000?

• 2:29Mike Carruthers?

  I'd certainly take a look. Enter to win the $1 million Shop Cash giveaway from now until November 1st. Just go to shop.com. There are so many ways to win. That's shop.com. Shopping designed around you. No purchase necessary. Restrictions apply. Official rules available at shop.com.

• 2:54Speaker 04

  Something You Should Know. Fascinating intel. The world's top experts. And practical advice you can use in your life. Today. Something You Should Know. With Mike Carruthers.

• 3:07Mike Carruthers?

  Hi, welcome to Something You Should Know. Do you play the lottery? I play sometimes. I'm not an avid player, but you know, when the jackpot gets big, I'll put down a couple of bucks. Not because I think I'm going to win, but because at least for the few hours between the time I buy my ticket and the time of the drawing, I have just as good a chance as anybody else and can imagine what if. There are a couple of things about the lottery you might be interested in knowing. First of all, you should only play the lottery if you can afford to play it and only play for fun because the odds of winning are really terrible. But with that said, here are some things to help you play smarter.

• 3:49Mike Carruthers?

  You cannot improve your chances of winning, but you can very slightly improve your odds of being the only winner by being random in your number choices or doing quick pick. Why? More people play lucky numbers like 7, 11, or 13, or they use numbers in their birthday, like between 1 and 30. So if you play those lower numbers and you win, you're more likely to have to share the winnings with somebody else. Scratch-off tickets usually have a better chance of paying off. Scratch games return about 60% of the money to winners, but the Lotto games typically pay out about 50%.

• 4:30Mike Carruthers?

  Remember to follow the rules because kids under 18 are not supposed to buy tickets or play the lottery. If you buy a ticket for someone under 18 and they win and they try to redeem the ticket, the ticket will likely be invalidated and then no one gets the money. And if you play, check your ticket because about 12% of all lottery prizes go unclaimed and that's just a shame. And that is something you should know. When you watch and see new innovative business ideas explode onto the scene, it's always interesting to see how they did it. After all, there are many new businesses that follow best practices, do all the right

• 5:15Mike Carruthers?

  things. And then there are businesses, or more precisely, the people who start the businesses, who do not follow best practices, who don't do the expected, don't do things the normal way. In fact, they often break the rules or invent new rules. And sometimes those businesses are wildly successful. As a venture capitalist and entrepreneur, Mike Maples Jr. keeps his eye on those rule-breaking businesses and sometimes invests in them. Mike is the co-founder of Floodgate, a leading seed-stage fund in Silicon Valley that invested in companies like Twitter, Twitch, and others at the very beginning of their startup journeys. Mike is the host of a podcast called Starting Greatness and he's author of a book called

• 6:00Mike Carruthers?

  Pattern Breakers: Why Some Startups Changed the Future. Hey, Mike, welcome. Good to have you on Something You Should Know.

• 6:07Speaker 02

  Thanks for having me. I've been looking forward to it.

• 6:10Mike Carruthers?

  So explain in a little more detail what it is you do, how you invest.

• 6:15Speaker 02

  Yeah, so I have a pretty unusual job. I invest way too early in startups. I invested in Twitter when it was called Odeo and they were deciding whether to rename it Voicemail 2.0. I invested in Lyft when it was Zimride and invested in Twitch when it was called Justin TV. And in fact, sometimes I invest when it's legally ambiguously too early. So when we decided to launch the Lyft service, we knew that it was going to be illegal and would need to get the laws changed in San Francisco. So when I mean too early, I mean way too early.

• 6:56Mike Carruthers?

  Well, that seems risky. And, you know, investing in companies in the early stages is risky enough, but investing in companies that are potentially breaking the law in the beginning, that's very fly-by-the-seat-of-your-pants kind of investing, it seems to me.

• 7:13Speaker 02

  That's right. So, you know, I look for companies that will change the future using technology. And usually, they look a little bit crazy at the time that you have to decide. And so you have to be willing to sort of deal with that ambiguity and deal with it, just the uncertainty of what the future might hold.

• 7:36Mike Carruthers?

  But beyond the risky part, the kind of the dangerous law-breaking part of this, what are you looking for when you look at companies to invest in?

• 7:46Speaker 02

  There's a, there's a story that I've always liked about two fish. There's these two little fish and they're swimming. They come up to a big fish. And the big fish says, how's the water, boys? And then the two little fish swim a little bit longer. And then they say, what the hell is water? And so most of us assume that tomorrow's going to be kind of similar to yesterday. Most of us, they, there are things happening around us that we don't even see. You know, the wheel was mounted horizontally for hundreds of years before somebody figured out to do it vertically. So wheels used to be used to make pots. And then somebody had the brilliant idea to mount the wheel vertically so that you could make

• 8:31Speaker 02

  a wagon and you could transport things. So my job is to find the person that breaks the pattern. Most of us are comfortable with what's known. Most of us do what we do. Uh, that's how we get through life, right? Our brains are wired to, to match patterns. But there's the occasional outlier person who says, you know what? There's a totally radically different way to approach this. And those are the people who change the future, right? The people who break the patterns.

• 8:59Mike Carruthers?

  Breaking the pattern though, doesn't mean success. You could break a pattern for a really stupid reason, or completely misread it, or... So it just being different doesn't make you successful?

• 9:14Speaker 02

  That's right. Most different ideas are wrong. But occasionally, there's a non-consensus idea that's incredibly right. And this is part of what's so challenging about being a great founder. Is that at the beginning, you don't know for sure that you're right. You only know that you're non-consensus. And so you have to be willing to risk being tragically wrong and embarrassingly wrong for the opportunity to be spectacularly right. And there's, there's no shortcut for that, right? Any, any coin where both sides are a winning strategy means that you're going to only have a minor win. You, you can't be in a situation where you can have a radical upside

• 9:59Speaker 02

  unless you're willing to risk complete failure and embarrassment.

• 10:03Mike Carruthers?

  So let's put a face on this. What, who are some pattern breakers that you can point to and say, they did it the way you just described?

• 10:11Speaker 02

  Yeah. So one, one pattern breaker that you probably know is, uh, Brian Chesky from Airbnb. Another one that you might know is, um, people like, uh, Travis at Uber, or the, the founders of Lyft, uh, Logan and John. Uh, another, another pattern breaker would be Elon Musk. Those would be examples of the types of people I'm talking about.

• 10:34Mike Carruthers?

  And so describe how it works. Like, take Airbnb and explain the pattern and how they broke it.

• 10:40Speaker 02

  Yeah. So, so pattern breakers do two things that are remarkable. They have pattern breaking ideas, but they also engage in pattern breaking behaviors. So the pattern breaking idea with Airbnb, and now, now it seems obvious. What's, what's challenging about these ideas is they, they start out as a heresy and they become the conventional wisdom. But you could imagine what it looked like in 2008. You're going to stay in a stranger's house? And, and that's crazy, right? Or, or, you know, like Lyft is another example. People are going to want to ride in a stranger's car? That's crazy.

• 11:22Speaker 02

  And so at the time, you're like, okay, well, what, what happens if somebody gets murdered in one of these houses, you know? At the time, the host and the guest were in the house at the same time. And so, you know, if, at the time that you hear about the idea, it hits really different. You're, you, you look at it and you're like, I don't know about that. And, and by the way, pattern breaking ideas don't just happen in business, right? Like, um, uh, Copernicus, when he said that the sun is at the center of the solar system, not the earth, uh, the Catholic Church put him under house arrest and didn't admit that they agreed with his theory for another 200 years.

• 12:02Speaker 02

  And so a lot of ideas that are breakthroughs start out seeming kind of crazy. And they, they offend people. They, they don't, they don't feel right to most people. They're hated by many people. They're ridiculed by people. So that's the first part of it. And then the second part is the pattern breaking actions. And so a lot of these pattern breaking founders are willing to do things that most of us won't do. So for example, Lyft, they realized that if they asked the government of San Francisco, can we launch this service? They would have said no. And so they launched the service knowing it was illegal. And then said, we'll get the law changed. Most people won't do that, right? Justin Khan, before he started Twitch.

• 12:48Speaker 02

  Sold his prior company on eBay for $250,000. Who does that, right? Like, most people would try to get their company acquired by another company. And so that's the other part of it, is these people are willing to engage in unconventional behaviors to fulfill their mission.

• 13:08Mike Carruthers?

  And when they do, when you come up with an idea like Airbnb, so you, we're gonna have people stay in strangers' homes, sometimes the host will even be there. And, and no one's ever done this, and this is the weirdest thing, and what if, you know, God knows what might happen. But do you think that pattern breakers have something that's telling them, yeah, but it'll work? Or are they just as baffled as everybody else and think it's a crapshoot?

• 13:40Speaker 02

  No, I think they usually know something. And so there's a famous sci-fi author, William Gibson, who used to say, "The future is already here, it's just not evenly distributed." And I love that quote because I think that it's true. I think that some people are living in the future before the rest of us. And so another person that's probably familiar to you is Marc Andreessen, who helped invent the internet browser. And most people at the time that he invented the internet browser thought that the digital superhighway would be created by the government, or by AT&T, or by Microsoft, or by AOL.

• 14:21Speaker 02

  And here's Marc Andreessen at the University of Illinois in a supercomputer lab, making minimum wage as a programmer, and he just starts tinkering with the emerging technologies of the internet, which had just become legal for business to use. And so everybody thought that it was gonna be a top-down thing, but it was a bottom-up type of thing. But, but I don't think Marc Andreessen was even thinking about starting a startup at first. I think he was just tinkering with things he was interested in, and he happened to be living in the future. He was working with high-performance computers on superfast networks. He was living in a world that most of us were about to live in. He just was living there first. And so he was living in the future before the rest of us.

• 15:07Speaker 02

  And more often than not, that's where the great startup ideas come from. Somebody got a glimpse of the future just a little bit ahead of the rest of us.

• 15:16Mike Carruthers?

  We're talking about businesses and ideas that break the rules and change the world. And my guest is Mike Maples Jr. He is a venture capitalist and author of the book Pattern Breakers. Why Some Startups Change the Future.

• 15:32Speaker 00

  Pink Pantheress here. Coach and Spotify are teaming up to bring music and style together, and they want you to be part of it. Grab your friends and head to the Tabby Tour, hitting cities around the country with live performances from special artists, exclusive experiences and personalized products. And discover custom playlists on Spotify, booked just for you based on who you are and how you listen. Live your story with Coach. Learn more at coach.com.

• 16:00Speaker 05

  Low energy, unfocused, foggy? You might be dehydrated. Gatorade Zero powders have been scientifically designed to help improve hydration balance in the body. With a clinically proven electrolyte blend and no artificial colors or flavors, great tasting hydration, no matter where you're going. Shop now online or at retailers nationwide. Gatorade hydrates better than water. Is it in you? Symptoms noted are signs of mild to moderate dehydration. Consult a healthcare professional if symptoms persist.

• 16:29Mike Carruthers?

  So Mike, something I want to get your thoughts on is when you look at these great pattern breaking ideas and the people who create them, it seems, and you tell me if I'm wrong, it seems that they're almost at anybody who does that is good for one or two. But you don't see, well, maybe Elon Musk is the exception, but you don't see the same person coming back with pattern breaking success, pattern breaking success, pattern breaking success in other areas after the first.

• 17:01Speaker 02

  I think that's right, Mike. And I think that that's a very insightful question in a lot of ways because and it relates to living in the future, right? So I like to say that, that the best founders are ideally fit to the future that they're tinkering with. And so, you know, I've mentioned Justin Khan earlier, who helped start Twitch. He was perfectly suited for Twitch because he wanted to live cast his life. He wanted to be an influencer. He wanted to be internet famous. But then the next company that he started after he'd succeeded was called Atrium. And it automated legal documents and law tasks.

• 17:44Speaker 02

  And Justin Khan doesn't like lawyers. He doesn't like the legal industry. He was starting Atrium because he thought it was going to be a big market or a big opportunity. But he had no passion for it. He had no authenticity for it. And so I think that the reason that a lot of founders have one great startup in them is not because they don't have the talent. It's just that authenticity really matters a lot.

• 18:08Mike Carruthers?

  And you mentioned at the beginning, some of the startups that you invested in early on that were successful. What about the ones that weren't?

• 18:19Speaker 02

  Oh, well, most of them aren't. Greatness in startups is rare. And so it's interesting, right? Like, um, my type of investing is about as diametrically opposed to say Warren Buffett as you could be, right? Like Warren Buffett says, "Rule number one is never lose money. Rule number two is don't forget rule number one." For me, rule number one is don't pass on Airbnb, which I unfortunately did. And so if I had said yes to Airbnb, I would have made 6,000 times my money on that investment. But I said no. Uh, now, had I, had I been wrong and it went out of business, I would have lost half a million dollars.

• 19:02Speaker 02

  But half a million dollars times 6,000 is a whole lot more. And so it's, it's, it's a different type of investment model. It's a, it's a model that says, "You're going to be wrong most of the time. How, you know, how wildly asymmetric is the upside in the case that you're right? And so what I need to be is spectacularly right on occasion. And so I need to invest in ideas that break the pattern enough, such that when they work, they'll change the future. Uh, and that's a pretty different way of thinking about stuff than how most investors think.

• 19:39Mike Carruthers?

  And is the success in the idea, or is the success in the ability to bend people to it?

• 19:47Speaker 02

  It turns out you need both. And so if you have an okay idea, but not a great idea, your upside will just be limited in a fundamental way. And the key to a great breakthrough idea is you have to deny the premise of the current rules. And so most people unwittingly try to build a better mousetrap. But what they don't realize is that in that world, the person who built the first mousetrap still has an advantage. They have customers, they have suppliers, they have a brand, they get to define the rules of competition. Startups win when they radically

• 20:31Speaker 02

  change the rules, when they disorient the incumbents, when they turn the status quo upside down. And so you need to have an idea that embodies those characteristics. You need to have an idea that if it works, it will change the future radically. But ideas on their own aren't enough to change the future. You have to move people to that different future of your design. And so you have to convince people in a tangible way to want to co-create the future with you. Because if you don't convince people, your ideas won't get realized. It'll just be an idea.

• 21:08Mike Carruthers?

  So in light of what you just said, talk about Lyft and Uber, because one, I mean, to me, it hurts in Avis. And most people look at the Uber and Lyft, they've got both apps on their phone, they call one, they try one, then they try the other to see who has the cheaper price. But they're two different companies. So somebody broke the rules and somebody else just followed that, it looks like.

• 21:36Speaker 02

  Well, both companies broke the rules in that case. So sometimes you have a startup idea, and somebody else is converging on that idea at the same time. So when I think about Uber and Lyft and pattern breaking, I think about it relative to, say, the taxis. And so in, you know, early 2000s, if you were in San Francisco and you called a taxi,

• 22:03Speaker 02

  You'd be lucky if one ever came. There weren't enough taxis. Their service was bad. They didn't show up at a reliable time. You couldn't trust a taxi to get you to your next business meeting, for example, or to get you somewhere on time. And so when people saw Uber and Lyft, they take out their smartphone. They see cars on a map in real time. They know exactly when it's going to come. It actually shows up within three to five minutes. It was a revelation, right? Like, nobody ever used Uber and Lyft and then said, well, how does that compare to taxis? And so a pattern-breaking startup forces a choice and not a comparison, right?

• 22:46Speaker 02

  Like, nobody, when they saw the Tesla Roadster, said, how's that different from a Porsche 911? Now, there were a lot of ways that Tesla Roadster was worse than a Porsche 911. The seats weren't as comfortable, the air conditioning wasn't as good, the radio wasn't as good. But the Tesla Roadster 10 years ago, or, you know, when it came out, embodied a whole new set of ideas about what a car company was and what a car could be. And so the pattern-breaking startup needs to say, okay, everybody else in the world is an apple. I'm not going to be a 10x better apple. I'm going to be the world's first banana. And I'm going to force you to choose, right? You may not want my

• 23:29Speaker 02

  banana, but for the people who do want that thing, I'm the only person who has it. And so that's where I like to say you want to force a choice and not a comparison. A startup doesn't want to be compared to anything that's ever come before. It wants to be a completely radically new thing.

• 23:48Mike Carruthers?

  And yet, aren't there plenty of companies that do quite well just building that better mousetrap? And then there are other people who, like, look at stories like you told of, you know, Uber basically breaking the law and then getting it changed. People aren't, just morally, aren't willing to do that.

• 24:08Speaker 02

  Yeah, so that's an interesting part, right? So we had talked about how the pattern breakers engage in different behaviors. And they're off putting, just like pattern breaking ideas can be off putting to people. So too can pattern breaking behaviors. And so we are conditioned from a very young age to fit in, right? We want to, when we're at school, we get rewarded when we give the teacher the answers to the questions that they want. We get rewarded when we, you know, we, how do you win friends and influence people? We get told as a manager that we want to get consensus. And it turns out that those people don't change the future.

• 24:50Speaker 02

  You change the future when you engage in different behaviors. And so if you, if you want to conform, you'll fall into the conformity trap. So just like ideas can fall into the comparison trap if they're not different enough. Founders can fall into the conformity trap if wanting to fit in is more important to them than fulfilling the mission. And so if you're Lyft and you're launching your service in San Francisco. If you ask the San Francisco regulators, do I have permission to launch this? They're going to say no. That means you're out of business.

• 25:31Speaker 02

  And so they had to have the courage to launch an illegal service that everybody loved. And then negotiate with the government after it was obvious that people wanted this. After it was obvious that the citizens of San Francisco would think that something was taken away from them if it was outlawed. Not everybody's going to do that, right? Not everybody wants to break the law. Some people, to your point, think that's immoral. But, you know, a lot of the founders say it's a stupid law.

• 26:02Mike Carruthers?

  So what's the takeaway here? What can people, from hearing these stories of these pattern breakers? What do we take from that? Particularly someone who's thinking of starting their own business or something? What can we use?

• 26:16Speaker 02

  People tend to want a recipe for things. And it turns out that breakthroughs don't come from a recipe, right? Like, so if you and I have the same recipe to make a cake, we'll make a cake that's pretty similar. But somebody has already come up with the answer to how to do that. Whereas breakthroughs are undiscovered, breakthroughs haven't happened yet. And so if we want to create breakthroughs, we need not a recipe. We need a different mindset. We need to have the willingness to try to notice things that people don't notice. Because it's just baked into our experience.

• 26:55Speaker 02

  We don't know, you know, the founders of Uber and Lyft understood that the iPhone that shipped in 2012 had a GPS locator chip in it. And that made ride sharing possible. Most of us don't know that. Most of us don't realize the thing in our pocket has something that's empowering that could change the future. And so I think that one of the, one of the things that I try to help people think about is to notice things, right? To notice things that are around us, to not always just engage in our default behaviors every day, one day at a time, the same way.

• 27:35Speaker 02

  But to, but to take, take the time to sort of notice the subtleties of things in life all around us that could lead to something radically different.

• 27:46Mike Carruthers?

  Well, it's another chapter in the story of how ideas become successful. And it seems like there's a never ending number of chapters, but it's always interesting to hear how some people break the mold and become pattern breakers and, and find success. I've been speaking with Mike Maples Jr. He is an entrepreneur and venture capitalist and author of the book, Pattern Breakers, Why Some Startups Changed the Future. And there's a link to that book in the show notes. Thank you for coming on and talking about this, Mike. I appreciate it.

• 28:17Speaker 02

  All right. Thanks, Mike. Great meeting you.

• 28:21Speaker 00

  Pink Pantheress here. Coach and Spotify are teaming up to bring music and style together, and they want you to be part of it. Grab your friends and head to the Tabby Tour, hitting cities around the country with live performances from special artists, exclusive experiences, and personalized products. And discover custom playlists on Spotify, booked just for you, based on who you are and how you listen. Live your story with Coach. Learn more at coach.com.

• 28:49Speaker 05

  Low energy, unfocused, foggy, you might be dehydrated. Gatorade Zero powders have been scientifically designed to help improve hydration balance in the body. With a clinically proven electrolyte blend and no artificial colors or flavors. Great tasting hydration, no matter where you're going. Shop now online or at retailers nationwide. Gatorade, hydrates better than water. Is it in you? Symptoms noted are signs of mild to moderate dehydration. Consult a healthcare professional if symptoms persist.

• 29:21Mike Carruthers?

  In conversations about science, you often hear about black holes. These things in outer space with such a strong gravitational pull that nothing can escape them, not even light. But what exactly is a black hole? Where are they? What do they do? Why should we even care? Well, that's what Marcus Choune is here to discuss. He is an award-winning science writer and broadcaster, a former radio astronomer at the California Institute of Technology. He's authored several books, including A Crack in Everything: How Black Holes Came in from the Cold and Took Cosmic Center Stage. Hi, Marcus, welcome to Something You Should Know.

• 30:03Speaker 03

  Thanks for inviting me.

• 30:05Mike Carruthers?

  So, explain what a black hole is and how we first figured out there were such things.

• 30:11Speaker 03

  So, they were predicted in 1915 or 1916. They were a consequence of Einstein's theory of gravity, but they were thought to be so ridiculous as to not even be the preserve of science fiction. So Einstein famously didn't believe in them. But over the decades, they've moved more and more into the center of science. So they're not science fiction objects on the periphery. And we now know there's a supermassive black hole in the heart of every galaxy, including their own Milky Way. And probably, we're having this conversation now because the supermassive black hole in the center of our galaxy is a relatively small one. It's only about 4.2 million times the mass of the sun.

• 30:55Speaker 03

  Had we... well, we could never have arisen in a galaxy with a big, supermassive black hole because they blast away all the gas, the raw material that forms stars. So a star like the sun could never have formed. So actually, you know, our having this conversation now is connected to black holes. So they've come that far into the center of science.

• 31:16Mike Carruthers?

  What is a black hole?

• 31:18Speaker 03

  Well, a black hole is a region of space where gravity is so strong that nothing, including light, can escape. Or, to put it in Einstein's terms, it's kind of a bottomless pit in the fabric of space of which light, nothing, not even light, can climb out. And we see them in two types in our universe. We don't quite know why we only see two types, but we see ones which are formed from the deaths of stars. These are called stellar mass black holes, and we see these supermassive black holes, which surprise everyone, one in the heart of every galaxy, and we have no idea what they're doing there, how they got there, and what their role is.

• 32:03Mike Carruthers?

  And how do we know if they're kind of, it seems like they're the lack of something, then how do we actually know they're there when they aren't really something we can observe?

• 32:16Speaker 03

  That's a really, really good question, because there was not very much interest in searching for black holes in the first half of the 20th century, even though they were shown to be a consequence of Einstein's theory in 1916. And the reason that nobody was really interested was because, like you, they thought they would be black against the black of space. How are you possibly going to spot them? But what people didn't realize is that stars are very rarely on their own. I mean, our sun is incredibly unusual to be a solitary star. Most stars come in pairs, what we call binary systems. So, you know, there are two stars orbiting each other. Our sun is quite unusual in being a solitary star.

• 33:01Speaker 03

  So what this means is if there are black holes, they're almost certainly going to have a companion. And so there's an environment around them. And what people didn't realize is that the black hole would suck in material from its companion star, and as that material swirled down onto the black hole, it would be heated to millions of degrees. It'd be like water going down a sink black hole. And it would be heated to millions of degrees, so that these objects would actually shine fantastically bright. So now we've discovered that black holes are some of the most luminous objects in the universe, which is completely the opposite of what you'd expect, because they're called black holes.

• 33:39Mike Carruthers?

  Wait a minute, the most luminous objects in the, and what is it they look like?

• 33:45Speaker 03

  Well, in 1963, Martin Schmidt, who was a Dutch-American astronomer at Caltech in California, discovered quasars. So he found that there were these point-like, stellar-like objects in the universe, and that they were at tremendous distances. The first one was 3C273, thousand times more distant than Andromeda, which is the nearest galaxy, and yet it was extremely bright. And he calculated that it was pumping out about 100 times more light than a typical galaxy. And within about a year of 1963, people realized that the only possible source of that incredible amount of energy, that incredible amount of light,

• 34:29Speaker 03

  was what we call, was the matter swirling in to a black hole. But not a black hole of just a few times the mass of the sun, a black hole of maybe millions or even tens of billions of times the mass of the sun. So what we actually see with these objects is the, what we call the accretion discs around the black hole. So the material swirls inward. Friction, internal friction causes it to get to millions of degrees. And we see these discs of material, and they are the most luminous objects in the universe. So the black hole at the center, still black, but it's surrounded by this incredibly luminous accretion disk.

• 35:09Mike Carruthers?

  And the closest one we can see is where?

• 35:13Speaker 03

  If we're talking about supermassive black holes, we've got one in the center of our galaxy. That's about 24,000 light years away. So in other words, if anything were to happen to it, we wouldn't know for 24,000 years, because it takes that long for light to get here. That's the nearest one. But every single galaxy has got one. And if you're talking about stellar-mass black holes, which form we believe from the deaths of stars. So a star blows itself apart in what we call a supernova. And paradoxically, when a star blows itself apart, its core implodes and can become a black hole if the star is massive enough. The nearest one of those would probably be maybe about 1,000 light years away. So they're not very, they are very difficult to spot.

• 35:58Speaker 03

  But they have to have a companion, or they have to have material swirling into them. So if there was a supermassive black hole and it was isolated, didn't have any matter around it, we wouldn't see it. It would indeed look black against the black of space.

• 36:13Mike Carruthers?

  Do black holes have anything to do with time?

• 36:18Speaker 03

  They have everything to do with time. As Einstein discovered in 1915, time flows more slowly in strong gravity. So incredibly, if you stand on one step of a staircase above, you know, one step above someone else, you age less quickly than the person on the step below. And this has actually been shown to be true by using two super accurate atomic clocks. But when you get, the, the, the black holes are the most extreme examples of gravity, where we get the most extreme distortion of time. So as you have, if you were to fall into a black hole and someone were to observe you, they would see your time go more and more slowly. So you'd be, you would, you would appear to be moving in slow motion.

• 37:03Speaker 03

  And as you got near the event horizon, which is the point of no return for in falling matter, you would basically, time would stop for you and you would freeze. So your image would be frozen on the edge of the black hole for all of time, even though you would have actually fallen in the black hole. So this is why before the term black hole was coined by John Wheeler in 1967 in the, in the United States, the Russians called these objects frozen stars because time freezes as you actually go through the, the, the event horizon. But we actually think at the very centre of these objects, everything sky rocks to infinity. So the, the, the mass, everything, the gravity becomes infinite,

• 37:47Speaker 03

  which is something we call a singularity. And, and we, at near the singularity, space and time actually come apart. So, so these are objects in which actual space and time break apart. And this is why they're interesting to physics, because that can't be true. We know that can't be true. Anything that blows up to infinity, that's telling you that the mathematics you're using is wrong. So gold dust for physicists is to find somewhere where their theories break. And so inside a black hole, we know our theory of gravity breaks. So we know that we need to find something better. So this is again, black holes are a frontier where known physics breaks down.

• 38:32Speaker 03

  And we, we get clues, we hope, to a deeper level of physics.

• 38:37Mike Carruthers?

  And it seems like it's very interesting to scientists, but it also, from listening to you talk, it seems like there's so much about them that we don't know, maybe more than we do know.

• 38:49Speaker 03

  Well, in many ways, that's true, but in another way, they are the simplest objects in the whole of science. They're only made of space and time, nothing else. So if a star gets the end of its life, a massive star runs out of fuel in its core, so it's no longer can generate the heat pushing outwards to oppose gravity. So it begins to shrink and shrink ever faster. We think that shrinks right down to pretty much zero volume. So the star itself has vanished, but all that's left is this kind of warpage of spacetime, this region where gravity is intensely strong,

• 39:31Speaker 03

  where spacetime is actually bent into this bottomless pit like a well. So there's nothing left, only space and time. So in many ways, they are the simplest objects in the universe.

• 39:43Mike Carruthers?

  So whenever you hear people talk about black holes, it's always about how, you know, gravity sucks things in and it can't escape. But science, as I understand it, doesn't really know what gravity itself is, right?

• 39:59Speaker 03

  Absolutely right. So Newton came up with a description of gravity. He basically said that there was an invisible tether, you know, which connects the earth to the sun and keeps the sun orbiting, trapped in orbit around the sun forever. Then in 1915, Einstein showed that was actually wrong. What actually happens is that a big mass like the sun creates a valley in the spacetime around it. Now spacetime is a four dimensional thing, so you can't really see it as a three dimensional creature. That's why it took the genius of Einstein to realize.

• 40:38Speaker 03

  But basically, there's a valley in the spacetime around the sun and the earth travels around the kind of upper reaches of that valley, rather like a roulette ball in a roulette wheel. That's actually what's happening. But both of them, as you just rightly pointed out, only describe gravity. So Newton described it one way, Einstein described it another way, but actually what gravity is...

• 41:04Speaker 03

  We don't actually know. We don't actually know.

• 41:07Mike Carruthers?

  I mean, I get I get that this is really important to understand for scientists, but why do you suppose people are kind of fascinated by black holes? And should we be? I mean, seems like this is something you guys in science handle and that this doesn't really apply much to me.

• 41:22Speaker 03

  Well, again, it's about us being here. So it was the Hubble Space Telescope in the 1990s that made the discovery that there's a supermassive black hole in the heart of every galaxy. So there's two trillion galaxies in our universe. Milky Way, where we live, is just one of them. And there's a supermassive black hole in the center of each. Now, we don't know what they're doing there. And now we've got the NASA's James Webb Space Telescope, which is basically the successor of Hubble Space Telescope. It's about a million, uh, million miles from from the earth. Uh, and it's finding, it's it it it light takes a long time to get to us from across the universe. So it's looking back at the very earliest universe.

• 42:05Speaker 03

  And it's seeing these supermassive black holes in galaxies very shortly after the big bangs. So when the universe was only a few percent of its current age, and they're already very big. So we're already beginning to get a bit of a problem. How could they have got big so quickly? Because obviously, black holes get big by sucking in material. But if you're looking back in the very early universe, there wasn't very much time between the big bang and these these black holes we're observing. There wasn't much time for them to grow. So we don't know how they formed. Um, that's a complete mystery.

• 42:41Mike Carruthers?

  But is there any sense of like, would we not be here? Would would the universe be something other than what it is if there were no black hole?

• 42:51Speaker 03

  Exactly. That's that's that's a suspicion. So, you know, in in a way, astronomers and physicists have been drag kicking and screaming to this because they thought that that black holes are so ridiculous, they couldn't possibly exist because you don't want them to exist because they they tell you that your physics is broken. So that's one of the reasons why Einstein did not want to believe in them because they They showed that his theory of gravity had this flaw in it. Um, so, um, you know, they, they, they, they are a kind of a problem for physics. But, you know, I, I, I think they just, just show us that there are a lot of mysteries out there. The more we know, I mean, I think, I think Newton said the greater the, the continent of the, the, of the known,

• 43:37Speaker 03

  the greater the coastline of the unknown. So the more we know, the more, the more

• 43:41Mike Carruthers?

  More we don't know.

• 43:42Speaker 03

  Questions we actually have.

• 43:44Mike Carruthers?

  But does it ever give you like, the way you describe black holes, the way you describe the universe and like all these things exist and had to exist and, and, and have to do it in this way. And does it ever give you pause to think there may be other forces at work, mystical, magical, spiritual, uh, creator type forces? Or are you strictly looking at this as this is science?

• 44:09Speaker 03

  This is science. I mean, you know, if you take Newton, for instance, Newton was a very religious person, very religious. And he just thought figuring out how all this works was, was revealing the mind of God. So, you know, if you're a religious person, you think, well, what a fantastic universe we live in. God created it. If you're not, you just think what a fantastic universe we live in. So, and, and where everywhere we look, if we fiddle with the laws of physics, even a small amount, we think that we will not, you would not get the universe you see around us. So this has led some people to think that maybe there's a multiverse, you know, maybe that this is just one universe among countless other universes, you know, like sand grains on a beach.

• 44:52Speaker 03

  And in that, in these other universes, there may be a slightly stronger force of gravity, a slightly weaker strong, uh, force of electromagnetic force or whatever. And only in the, the, the universes where these conditions are right. Can there form stars like the sun, planets like the earth? And can there evolve life like ours? But so that that was that would make us that would make the book. It would be another leap in the size of the universe. I mean, if you remember, once upon a time, you thought the universe was just the sun and six naked eyed planets. And at the beginning of the 20th century, we realized that the sun is actually one a part of the Milky Way, which is a great island of stars, about 200 billion of them.

• 45:34Speaker 03

  And then in the 1920s, we realized that our galaxy is but one among two trillion others, which are flying apart in the aftermath of a titanic explosion, which we call the Big Bang. So if we were to discover that there was actually a multiverse, that would be yet another step, the universe is getting even bigger. And if the universe gets bigger, that makes us feel a bit smaller, doesn't it really?

• 45:57Mike Carruthers?

  But it does make you wonder that so many things had to be exactly as they are, without even slight variations, or we wouldn't be here. It makes you wonder, it just makes you wonder.

• 46:09Speaker 03

  Well, it does. But then again, we are only looking at it from our point of view. We're thinking about life as we know it, because unfortunately, we only know of one example. We only know one planet in this whole universe with life. So we're looking at our life and we're thinking, what conditions are needed for our life? But how do we know that there isn't life, you know, in unimaginable forms? You know, I mean, could stars be, you know, conscious? Could, I mean, there could be, there could be life which is not based on carbon, is not based on on the molecules, you know, the biological molecules that we see.

• 46:51Speaker 03

  So again, it's very, very difficult arguing from from just one example, which is, you know, terrestrial biology.

• 47:01Mike Carruthers?

  But lastly, because black holes are so inaccessible, it seems like to really get to the bottom of the mystery is impossible, because because they're just too far away. And even if you could get there, it would swallow you up. And so so we have to admire it from afar and make a lot of guesses.

• 47:25Speaker 03

  But we don't, because in 2019, we created the very first, or we obtained the very first image of a black hole. So we had a, an international network of radio dishes, one of which was at the South Pole, and one or two of them, one of them, one or two of them are in America. And this, this array was able to behave like a radio dish the size of the Earth, and it was able to create the very first image of a black hole. And this was in a nearby galaxy called M87. The black hole was six billion times the mass of the Sun, and it was exactly

• 48:05Speaker 03

  as science fiction films had envisaged it. There was this black gaping hole, surrounded by this glowing material swirling in. And in 2021, I think, we were able to obtain the first ever image of the supermassive black hole at the center of our galaxy, which is called Sagittarius A star. That's about a thousandth the size of the one in M87, but they seem very, very similar. So we, we are now at, at the stage where with more telescopes, we'll be able to see more detail, and perhaps even create videos of material swirling into these black holes. So we actually

• 48:48Speaker 03

  are on the edge of being able to understand them and be able to see whether the predictions of Einstein's theory of gravity hold up.

• 48:57Mike Carruthers?

  And what if they don't?

• 48:59Speaker 03

  If they don't, that's the most exciting thing of all.

• 49:01Mike Carruthers?

  Yeah.

• 49:02Speaker 03

  You know, I mean, that's what physicists and scientists really, really want. They want to see places where their current theories break down, because then that gives them a hint at a deeper level of understanding.

• 49:15Mike Carruthers?

  You know, astronomically speaking, you've mentioned in our discussion, you know, things like quasars and the Andromeda Galaxy and...

• 49:24Mike Carruthers?

  And then we have black holes. You know, it doesn't really, the term doesn't spark the imagination, but interesting nevertheless. I've been speaking with Marcus Chown. He is an award-winning science writer and broadcaster, a former radio astronomer at the California Institute of Technology, and author of the book, "A Crack in Everything: How Black Holes Came in from the Cold and Took Cosmic Center Stage." There's a link to his book in the show notes. Thanks, Marcus.

• 49:53Speaker 03

  Thank you very much, Mike. I really enjoyed it.

• 49:59Mike Carruthers?

  Interesting thing about preventing skin cancer. Most of us agree that using sunscreen is one of the best ways to protect your skin from the sun and ultimately from skin cancer. Maybe so. But over the last 40 years or so, people have gotten much better at remembering to apply sunscreen. Still, skin cancer rates have gone way up, indicating that there may be more to the story. Like diet. A diet that includes a lot of fruits and vegetables, fish and herbs, seems to have a very protective effect against melanoma, the deadliest skin cancer there is. In regions of the world where people eat diets like I

• 50:43Mike Carruthers?

  just described, the rate of skin cancer is substantially lower than it is here in the U.S. And that is something you should know. I hope you enjoyed this episode. If you did, I really would appreciate it if you would tell someone you know about it. Send them the link, share this podcast using the share link on whatever platform you're listening on. It's really easy. And help us grow our audience. It means a lot. I'm Mike Herrothers. Thanks for listening today to Something You Should Know.

• 51:15Speaker 00

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• 51:42Speaker 06

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