The Louisiana Purchase

A Short History of Ancient Rome⁠ - the debut book from the Noiser Network is out now! Discover the epic rise and fall of Rome like never before. Pick up your copy now at your local bookstore or visit ⁠⁠noiser.com/books⁠⁠ to learn more. In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson negotiated the purchase of 820,000 square miles of land from Napoleon, including the modern states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri and Colorado, among many others. At the stroke of a pen, the nation almost doubled in size. But the purchase of Louisiana was only the beginning. Immediately, the American government was forced to reckon with a series of difficult questions – not least about how to incorporate this enormous, multi-ethnic territory into the United States, and what to do about the Indigenous population who had inhabited the Territory for millennia. But why did Napoleon agree to sell Louisiana in the first place? How did this territory, and its inhabitants, become part of the fledgling United States? And what impact did these monumental events have on the course of American history? This is a Short History Of the Louisiana Purchase. A Noiser podcast production. Hosted by John Hopkins. With thanks to Peter Kastor, Professor of History at Washington University in St. Louis, and lead researcher on the Creating a Federal Government project, a digital project reconstructing the careers of America's early federal employees. Written by Emmie Rose Price-Goodfellow | Produced by Kate Simants | Production Assistant: Chris McDonald | Exec produced by Katrina Hughes | Sound supervisor: Tom Pink | Sound design by Oliver Sanders | Assembly edit by Anisha Deva | Compositions by Oliver Baines, Dorry Macaulay, Tom Pink | Mix & mastering: Cody Reynolds-Shaw | Fact Check: Sean Coleman Get every episode of Short History Of… a week early with Noiser+. You’ll also get ad-free listening, bonus material and early access to shows across the Noiser podcast network. Click the subscription banner at the top of the feed to get started. Or go to noiser.com/subscriptions Learn more about your ad choices. Visit podcastchoices.com/adchoices

• 0:01Speaker 00

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• 1:03Speaker 02

  It is the 22nd of January 1804. A dark evening in the middle of winter.

• 1:10Speaker 02

  But in the city of New Orleans, on the southern coast of the United States, the weather is still mild.

• 1:17Speaker 02

  A small carriage drawn by a pair of shabby horses pulls up outside the city's public ballroom.

• 1:24Speaker 02

  A young man in a dark evening coat and white cravat jumps out and drops a few coins into the driver's outstretched hand.

• 1:34Speaker 02

  George Morgan is one of a growing number of Anglo-Americans who have moved into the territory of Louisiana, which has only just been handed over by the French. But the inhabitants of New Orleans are still largely of French descent and their culture and customs define the city.

• 1:53Speaker 02

  George hurries up the short flight of steps to the red brick building and pushes open the heavy door.

• 2:02Speaker 02

  The large, high-ceilinged ballroom is already packed. In the middle, twelve couples are twirling their way through a traditional English dance, ably accompanied by the musicians. George watches, mesmerized, at the way the ladies' gowns reflect the lamplight as they spin and swap partners. Many of the men are American military officers, their coats gleaming with braid and brass buttons.

• 2:31Speaker 02

  The ball, George finds, is a cosmopolitan affair. Moving through the room, he hears conversations in English from the Americans, French from the Louisianians, a smattering of Spanish. But the groups are not mixing. As he passes a knot of French military officers standing in a corner muttering darkly, he realizes that something of a bad atmosphere is brewing.

• 2:58Speaker 02

  The music comes to an end with a flourish from the violinist, and the crowd applauds.

• 3:05Speaker 02

  Sets of four begin to form for another English dance, and George steps forward, hoping to join in. But alongside the quartets forming, pairs are also standing as if for a French waltz.

• 3:20Speaker 02

  A murmur of confusion runs through the crowd.

• 3:24Speaker 02

  Things quickly escalate. Several of the American soldiers begin haranguing the musicians, demanding they play another English country reel, while the French shout for a waltz. The crowd only falls silent when the governor, twenty-eight-year-old William Claiborne, climbs onto a bench and shouts for order.

• 3:47Speaker 02

  Since they have just had an English dance, he says, "It is time now for a waltz." His tone brooks no disagreement. The French dancers look pleased, and George reluctantly steps back from the dance floor as the first strains of the music start up.

• 4:05Speaker 02

  But the dance has barely begun when an American advances on the lead violinist, demanding a halt to this French music. To the shock of those assembled, he then proceeds to beat the musician with his cane. Soon, the violin is in splinters, and when the cane itself breaks, the slim sword inside it is revealed.

• 4:31Speaker 02

  Immediately, more weapons are drawn, with American soldiers now facing off against a group of French military officers. As Claiborne throws himself between the two sides, George presses himself against the wall to avoid being pulled into the melee as the ball descends into a brawl.

• 4:50Speaker 02

  Though the city is newly American in name, it is clear that national divisions and resentments inherited from Europe still reign in New Orleans.

• 5:10Speaker 02

  In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson negotiated the purchase of 820,000 square miles of land from Napoleon. Known as the Louisiana Territory, it included the modern states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, and Colorado, among many others. At the stroke of a pen, the nation almost doubled in size.

• 5:35Speaker 02

  But the purchase of Louisiana was only the beginning. Immediately, the American government was forced to reckon with a series of difficult questions, not least about how to incorporate this enormous, multi-ethnic territory into the United States, and what to do about the indigenous population who had inhabited the territory for millennia.

• 5:59Speaker 02

  But why did Napoleon agree to sell Louisiana in the first place? How did this territory and its inhabitants become part of the fledgling United States? And what impact do these monumental events have on the course of American history?

• 6:15Speaker 02

  I'm John Hopkins. From the Noiser Podcast Network, this is A Short History of the Louisiana Purchase.

• 6:30Speaker 02

  From the late 15th century, European explorers have been making claims on North America. But the vast swathe of land that will become known as the Louisiana Territory remains untouched by them until 1682, when a Frenchman named Rene Robert Cavalier reaches the mouth of the Mississippi River.

• 6:52Speaker 02

  He claims the waterway and the land around it in the name of King Louis XIV, hence the name Louisiana.

• 7:01Speaker 02

  Over time, the name comes to refer to a vast region stretching roughly from the Mississippi River westward toward the unexplored plains and mountains, and from the Great Lakes in the north down to the Gulf of Mexico.

• 7:15Speaker 02

  Peter Kastor is professor of history at Washington University in St. Louis and author of a number of books on the Louisiana Purchase.

• 7:23Speaker 03

  In 1699, when the French government announced the creation of this colony called Louisiana, Spain claimed all of what is now Mexico, but as part of that claimed a lot of land that is now the southwestern and western United States, reaching up into states like Colorado, California, Oregon. So that was their claim. The French claimed this big colony of Louisiana. Most importantly to them, they claimed all of what is now Canada. The British, they consolidate their control really in the eastern third of North America. And that's now really the eastern part of the United States into the Midwest.

• 8:10Speaker 02

  In 1718, the city of New Orleans is founded near the mouth of the river and the Gulf Coast in an area long used by indigenous peoples as a market for goods.

• 8:23Speaker 02

  Louisiana itself is not a profitable territory, but the city is crucial as a trading post for France. Animal pelts and other precious commodities from French-held Canada are brought down the Mississippi and shipped out of New Orleans for sale in Europe and beyond.

• 8:41Speaker 02

  But though now nominally French, much of the land outside of the towns and settlements is still home to a variety of indigenous peoples.

• 8:51Speaker 03

  And the crucial thing to understand those societies is they're not organized, in many cases, by the large tribal terms that people often use today. They tended to be organized around groups of villages that were organized either as bands or larger societies. But if you were traveling through there, constantly along the way, if you were going through the northern area, you might run into the Iguala Lakota, a group that the Europeans called the Tietan Sioux, and it was clear that they were in charge. If you headed to the south and the west, you'd run into one of the Comanche bands, and it was clear that they were governing the land there. So it's this place that had a large population with very elaborate politics, complex diplomacy, a really far-reaching trade.

• 9:40Speaker 02

  The newer occupants of the continent from France, Spain, and England do not always coexist peacefully in North America, either with their indigenous neighbors or each other. European politics frequently disrupt diplomacy in the Americas.

• 9:57Speaker 02

  In 1754, conflict breaks out between Britain and France, soon spreading worldwide as the Seven Years' War, which reshapes the political map of North America.

• 10:08Speaker 03

  During the conflict, the British launch a major campaign into French Canada and are victorious. And in the peace negotiations, which conclude in 1763, eight years after the war erupts, the French agree to cede their colony of Canada. That's the first thing that gets settled. Well, then the French conclude, if we don't have Canada, which was the moneymaker, we definitely don't need Louisiana, which they then cede to the Spanish.

• 10:41Speaker 02

  Much of North and Central America is split between British and Spanish control, although large areas of the continent are still not colonized by Europeans.

• 10:52Speaker 02

  New France, the territory previously claimed by the French in North America, ceases to exist. Aside from the city of New Orleans itself, the land Spain receives from France is still primarily inhabited and controlled by indigenous Americans. They trade food, medicines, and building practices with the colonists, and receive in return weapons, alcohol, textiles, and glass beads. Alongside the European settlers, most of whom are French even after the Spanish takeover, an ever-growing number of enslaved Africans are brought into the territory to labor on plantations.

• 11:33Speaker 02

  Such is the situation in Louisiana, when 13 British colonies on the east coast of North America declare independence in July 1776.

• 11:44Speaker 02

  In the following years, the American colonists fight for their freedom. And though the French no longer have a territorial stake on the mainland, their historic and ongoing rivalry with England convinces them to side with the Americans. Eventually, after a catastrophic defeat at the siege of Yorktown, the British surrender. The Treaty of Paris, formally ending the conflict, is signed in 1783.

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• 14:11Speaker 02

  At its birth, the United States comprises territory south of Canada and east of the Mississippi River. The new nation is hemmed in by European powers, Britain to the north and Spain to the southwest. Crucially, in an era when water is often the fastest means of transportation, the Mississippi River, the Florida Peninsula, and much of the Gulf Coast belong to Spain.

• 14:38Speaker 03

  Whenever possible, people would travel through the river systems. A very common route at that time is that people would, if they were going again from the eastern seaboard, they would go on horseback or in a carriage to a place like Pittsburgh, where they would then get on the Ohio River and take that either to a point farther west or to the Mississippi River and then down to New Orleans. But we're still talking about a travel time of several weeks.

• 15:05Speaker 02

  One key early goal for the nascent United States is ensuring access to the river and the port of New Orleans. After negotiations in 1795, the Spanish allowed the Americans to sail down the Mississippi and deposit their goods in New Orleans for trade. But though the Spanish relinquish their claim on some of the land that now forms the states of Alabama and Mississippi, they hold on to the Louisiana Territory and the Gulf Coast. But not for long. Because just a few years later, Napoleon is developing his plans to rebuild a French empire in the region. And to do that, he needs something from the Spanish.

• 15:48Speaker 03

  The French and the Spanish sign a secret treaty through which Spain cedes Louisiana to France, back to France, so they're returning it. That's why it's often called the "retrocession." The French want to acquire it because they think Louisiana can be a source of raw materials for their Caribbean colonies, that's where the money is. And they sign this secret agreement that also has another really weird feature. France will own Louisiana, but the Spanish officials will continue to govern it. It's kind of like France is this absentee landlord.

• 16:22Speaker 02

  At this point, it's unclear what this deal between European nations will mean for the United States on the other side of the Mississippi River. The president who has to grapple with the "retrocession" and its consequences is Thomas Jefferson. One of the founding fathers and an author of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson becomes the third president of the United States in March 1801. Though he's a passionate advocate for democracy and individual rights, he is nonetheless a slave owner, with around 100 enslaved individuals working on his Virginia plantation at any one time.

• 17:06Speaker 03

  Whenever I talk about Thomas Jefferson, I start by saying people invest a lot of emotion into this guy. And it can actually make it difficult to make sense of him. Because Americans, as well as people around the world, have long sought to understand the United States through Jefferson. They've seen him as a symbol, whether for good or for ill. The fundamental principle that guides him throughout his adult life is the notion of equality. Now, of course, we know that he had that very tightly defined, for him. For him, equality is primarily for Euro-Americans.

• 17:48Speaker 02

  Jefferson also has mixed views on the idea of American territorial expansion. For the most part, he is uninterested in government-led efforts to acquire new land.

• 18:01Speaker 03

  When Thomas Jefferson came into office, he had no plan to expand the boundaries of the United States. And his reasons were simple. And they were reasons that he shared with many of his fellow Americans, especially the American political class, regardless of which political party they were from, which was, they had enough on their plate to keep them busy. Their conclusion was that the United States had large territorial claims, made it larger than most of the countries they compared themselves to, and that that was an enormously difficult challenge for the United States.

• 18:38Speaker 02

  However, Jefferson does support the spread of white settlers into areas nominally ruled by the US government, but that are largely inhabited by indigenous groups.

• 18:49Speaker 03

  The area of expansion that mattered to him most was the expansive settlement of white settlers, men and women, families, fanning out throughout the United States. The census of 1800 had shown that the number of people living west of the Appalachian Mountains was really growing. And Jefferson was thrilled by this. Jefferson believed in equality. And he believed that the foundation of that was land ownership. If you could own your own land, you were equal to anybody else.

• 19:23Speaker 02

  From the moment of his inauguration, Jefferson and his Secretary of State, James Madison, have their hands full, attempting to incorporate the land west of the Appalachian Mountains and north of the Ohio River into the Union. This is known as the Northwest Territory.

• 19:42Speaker 02

  Having escaped the clutches of the British Empire, they do not wish the United States itself to become an imperial power with its own colonies. So a plan is drawn up whereby newly acquired territories can be governed until they have a large enough population of voting-age white men. Only at this point can they become full and equal states. The Northwest Territory is set on this path, and the first state to emerge from it, Ohio, will achieve statehood in 1803.

• 20:16Speaker 02

  Preoccupied as they are with westward movement of settlers and the incorporation of the Northwest Territory, when the Americans find out about the secret agreement between France and Spain, they are furious.

• 20:29Speaker 02

  Not to mention worried.

• 20:31Speaker 03

  They're afraid that it will negate all of the treaties that the US have and the agreements the US has with Spain. They think it might be a sign that the French want to become this reborn power in North America. The Americans don't know what to do. All they know is that they're angry.

• 20:52Speaker 02

  Their unease increases when the leader of the French Republic, Napoleon Bonaparte, sends a huge force to the Caribbean in 1801.

• 21:01Speaker 02

  The army is commanded by his brother-in-law, Charles Victor Emmanuel Leclerc. For a decade now, the French slave colony of Saint-Domingue has been in revolt. But its sugar plantations are immensely profitable, and Leclerc's orders are to win it back, no matter the cost.

• 21:21Speaker 02

  The expedition shows how serious Napoleon is about reinstating France's empire in the New World. The Louisiana Territory, still governed by Spain but due to be returned to France in 1803, is a key part of that vision. In 1802, American fears solidify when Spain rescinds their rights to navigate the Mississippi River and deposit goods in New Orleans. Given Napoleon's imperial ambitions, there seems little hope that the situation will change once France regains control of the Louisiana Territory.

• 21:57Speaker 02

  American policymakers discuss a variety of solutions to what they are soon calling "the Mississippi Crisis."

• 22:04Speaker 03

  As early as 1801, they're starting to say, "What we really need to do is acquire New Orleans and the Gulf Coast, once and for all." Alexander Hamilton has a simple solution. He says, "The Jefferson administration needs to send the army. They need to invade. They need to seize it." It's a completely unrealistic plan. It's partly because Hamilton himself is a militarist. It's also, he's kind of challenging the Jeffersonians to do something about this.

• 22:31Speaker 02

  While American politicians debate how best to resolve the crisis, events in the Caribbean are working in their favor. By the final months of 1802, Leclerc's mission to retake Saint-Domingue, the pearl in the French imperial crown, is faltering.

• 22:54Speaker 02

  It is the beginning of November 1802. At the military hospital at Le Cap in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, chaos reigns.

• 23:05Speaker 02

  In a fetid, crowded ward, a doctor named Per shakes his head as he fails to find a pulse at his patient's wrist. He nods to two attendants standing nearby who cover the dead man's body with a sheet and remove it to make way for the next patient.

• 23:22Speaker 02

  And there is always a next patient.

• 23:28Speaker 02

  Yesterday, two hundred soldiers were admitted to the hospital. Pear has long bitter experience of treating men on battlefields, but on Saint-Denis, they are facing a different kind of enemy.

• 23:41Speaker 02

  He continues on his rounds. The beds are packed tightly together, the air thick with the smell of sweat and diseased bodies.

• 23:50Speaker 02

  Every man has the same symptoms: an aching head, a dangerously high fever, pain in their joints. Some clutch their stomachs in agony, others have a yellow tinge to their skin and the whites of their eyes.

• 24:06Speaker 02

  There is little Pear can do. Attendants bathe the foreheads of the stricken men with cool water and give them herbal concoctions to try and bring their temperatures down. Some are even subjected to bloodletting, but they are losing more and more lives every day to this unstoppable fever.

• 24:27Speaker 02

  As he reaches the final bed, another three men are carried in by the comrades. Pear runs his hands through his hair, permanently soaked with sweat, and scans the room for space to put the new arrivals.

• 24:41Speaker 02

  Just then, a junior officer rushes over, who takes him aside and breathlessly tells him he is needed at General Leclerc's residence. There's not a moment to lose.

• 24:53Speaker 02

  After pausing at the door to jam his bicorne hat on his head, he follows the officer out into the velvet night.

• 25:00Speaker 02

  Once outside, he takes a deep breath, relieved to be free of the cloying smell of the hospital. Then he hurries down the street after the officer.

• 25:12Speaker 02

  Soon, they are at the general's palace. Once admitted, they are hustled quickly up the stairs to Leclerc's private apartments. The general lies in a grand four-poster bed, as he has done for days. Stained sheets lie tangled round his feet. His fine white nightshirt is soaked with sweat, and even in the small pool of light cast by the bedside candle, Pear can see his skin is yellower than it was this morning. His breathing has turned heavy and rasping.

• 25:44Speaker 02

  Kneeling by the bedside is his wife, Pauline, and their young son. The boy is weeping piteously, but Pauline's eyes are dry as she clutches onto her husband's right hand. The rings under her eyes show she hasn't slept in days.

• 26:01Speaker 02

  Pierre crosses to the bed and takes Leclerc's other wrist in his. His pulse is already weakening. The doctor stands by his general's bed until his knees begin to ache.

• 26:13Speaker 02

  Until, finally, he nods at Pauline.

• 26:18Speaker 02

  Leclerc is dead.

• 26:22Speaker 02

  At last, his wife lays her head down on the bed and sobs.

• 26:39Speaker 00

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• 27:38Speaker 02

  Though a personal tragedy for his wife and young son, Leclerc's death provides relief to the people of Saint-Domingue.

• 27:46Speaker 02

  Shortly before he fell ill, he suggested to Napoleon that the virtual annihilation of the black adults on the island was necessary to bring the territory back under French control.

• 27:57Speaker 02

  With his passing and the deaths of tens of thousands of his soldiers from Yellow Fever, his genocidal orders are never carried out. Within two years, Saint Domingue will be an independent country, bearing its new name of Haiti.

• 28:16Speaker 02

  The failure of his mission is good news for the United States too, though they are not immediately aware of it. In the spring of 1803, President Jefferson and Secretary of State Madison at last come up with a solution to the Mississippi Crisis. They will offer to buy the city of New Orleans for $2.5 million.

• 28:38Speaker 02

  A man named James Monroe, who will later be elected president himself, is quickly dispatched to Paris to join the American minister already in the city, Robert Livingston.

• 28:50Speaker 03

  Monroe crosses the Atlantic. He meets up with Livingston, and these are two deeply experienced diplomats. They were founding fathers. They also had enormous egos. Monroe thinks he's the young generation. He fought in the revolution. He's a protege of Jefferson's. Livingston is one of the wealthiest men in New York. Side story, Robert R. Livingston, the R stands for Robert. His secretary is his nephew or cousin, Robert L. Livingston. The L stands for Livingston. So Robert Robert Livingston and Robert Livingston Livingston, they're both writing to Washington. It's always difficult to tell who's who. Back to the story.

• 29:34Speaker 03

  Madison writes up these very, very detailed instructions. They're a terrific example of how you offer guidance but latitude to someone who you know you're not able to control. Because once Monroe boards the ship to France, he's out of their control. Madison also wrote up a draft treaty. He says, "Your job is to negotiate a sale of New Orleans and the Floridas. That's it."

• 30:03Speaker 02

  While Monroe is crossing the Atlantic, events overtaken.

• 30:08Speaker 02

  With the decimation of their army on Saint-Domingue, it is becoming apparent that the French cannot retake the colony. War between Britain and France in Europe seems imminent, and the territory of Louisiana is large, unprofitable, and a prime target for British attacks from Canada, should war be declared between the two countries. But though Napoleon now recognizes Louisiana as a strategic liability, he would much rather get something for it than end up losing it to the British for nothing.

• 30:38Speaker 03

  So Monroe and Livingston, they're both in Paris. They go out to dinner because they're committed to working together. And while they're eating, the French Minister of Finance, Francois Barbey-Marbot, comes by, and he comes in to talk with them. And he says, "I have news for you. I think Napoleon is ready to negotiate, and you're going to like what he has to say." It's a very tantalizing moment. Why? Why this change? So Monroe and Livingston go to meet with Bonaparte and Talleyrand. His foreign secretary is there. He's the kind of master negotiator in Europe. And they're blown away by what they hear, which is the French say, "We're ready to deal,

• 31:22Speaker 03

  and we will sell you everything in Louisiana, everything in Louisiana, all or nothing."

• 31:33Speaker 02

  Over the coming weeks, the American and French negotiators hammer out a treaty. America pledges to buy all the land that the French had ceded to the Spanish, and the Spanish had then given back. Beyond that, the boundaries of the territory are not clearly delineated. The price is $15 million, around $350 million in today's money.

• 32:00Speaker 02

  The news reaches Jefferson and Madison on the 3rd of July 1803. The next day, on the 27th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, the president appears on the White House steps to announce the purchase.

• 32:15Speaker 02

  With the addition of the 820,000-square-mile territory of Louisiana, the United States of America has just doubled in size. But the agreement is only the beginning. On the 20th of October, the Senate ratifies the purchase treaty. Shortly thereafter, the financing is approved, and Congress passes legislation enabling Jefferson to take possession of and govern the territory.

• 32:42Speaker 03

  What they end up doing is they use a template that's worked: the territorial system. This process through which you acquire land, you subdivide it, you constitute it as a territory, and eventually it becomes a state. What it meant to be a federal territory was that you were quite literally governed federally. The person in charge of every federal territory was a governor, but the governor was not elected. The governor was selected by the president.

• 33:11Speaker 02

  After Jefferson appoints a young man named William Claiborne as governor, the transfer goes off without a hitch, and the territory formally passes from Spain to France. Then, on the 20th of December 1803, the French governor hands it over to Claiborne.

• 33:29Speaker 02

  Almost immediately, the territory purchased from the French is cleaved in two.

• 33:35Speaker 02

  The small territory of Orleans, governed by Claiborne, encompasses roughly the modern state of Louisiana and is centered on the city of New Orleans itself. Many of its inhabitants are European and American, with a sizable population of enslaved African-Americans and free people of color. The much larger territory of Louisiana covers everything else. It is over three times the size of France and far more sparsely populated than New Orleans, at least by white settlers. But it is home to numerous indigenous groups. Living far from areas of white settlement, their opinions on the transfer of control have not been sought. For now, at least, it makes little immediate difference.

• 34:20Speaker 02

  It is only in the years to come that the US will exert ever more control over the land and their lives.

• 34:29Speaker 02

  The governance of the Territory of Louisiana is given over to William Henry Harrison.

• 34:35Speaker 03

  Harrison had been the governor of the Indiana Territory, right next door. And he's an emerging star among these appointed officials. There's a great book about him called Mr. Jefferson's Hammer, because he had had a really tight rule, both over white settlers and Native Americans. Harrison later got elected president in 1840, gave the longest inaugural address in US history, caught pneumonia and died 30 days later. People laugh at that. In 1803, he's 33 years old, and he's a very effective governing official.

• 35:10Speaker 02

  Even after these systems of governance have been erected, the simple but crucial question that remains unanswered concerns the exact boundaries of the land the Americans have purchased.

• 35:22Speaker 03

  In the winter, Jefferson and Madison start writing to each other, saying, "What are the boundaries of Louisiana?" And the other one writes back, "I thought you knew the boundaries of Louisiana." So they really don't know what they've bought. Americans start saying, "We think it includes the Floridas, the Gulf Coast and the Florida Peninsula." The Spanish immediately say, "No dice. We know it's not that. We're not going to cede that land."

• 35:45Speaker 02

  Jefferson now orders teams to be assembled, tasked with mapping the new territory, gaining information on geography and resources, and gathering intelligence on its indigenous inhabitants. The first and most famous of these is led by Captain Meriwether Lewis and Second Lieutenant William Clark. The so-called Corps of Discovery, made up of around 40 men, leaves Illinois in May 1804 and starts the arduous journey up the Missouri River and into the unknown.

• 36:22Speaker 02

  It is the seventeenth of August, eighteen oh five. High summer in the foothills of the Beaverhead Mountains, on the border between modern-day Idaho and Montana. The landscape is green, rustling grasses as far as the eye can see, interrupted by darker-hued firs and pines. High overhead, a bald eagle's cry rings out.

• 36:47Speaker 02

  Meriwether Lewis raises a hand to shade his eyes. From his vantage point astride a stocky brown horse, he scans the wild, empty landscape.

• 36:59Speaker 02

  Alongside a few other men, he split from the main expedition force a week ago to scout ahead, but they are now running low on supplies. Having retraced their steps, they should have found their companions by now, including co-leader William Clark. But still, there is no sign of them. Lewis's stomach cramps, reminding him that he has not eaten enough in several days. If they don't reunite with the main expedition soon, they could be in serious trouble.

• 37:32Speaker 02

  Turning to the man next to him, Lewis points towards a river in the distance, miming that they should follow its course. The man is a local chief, dressed in a pale deer-skin shirt and leggings. He and some of his people have been traveling with Lewis for several days now. The language barrier is an issue, but gesturing has got them this far.

• 37:57Speaker 02

  Nodding at Lewis's suggestion, the chief tosses his long, black hair over his shoulder before signaling to his own men to continue towards the river.

• 38:08Speaker 02

  Now, Lewis hears a shout in the distance.

• 38:13Speaker 02

  His heart racing, his hand goes to the knife on his belt. Is it their companions, or one of the hostile tribes they've been warned about? Raids are not uncommon out on the plains.

• 38:26Speaker 02

  Readying himself, the chief raises his spear and tells his men to do the same as the shouts grow nearer. But as Lewis squints against the sunlight, he breathes a sigh of relief when he identifies the leader of the group in the distance as none other than William Clark.

• 38:46Speaker 02

  But before they arrive, you see someone else, much closer.

• 38:52Speaker 02

  It's their translator, Sakajewia, hurrying to meet them on foot. Her infant son strapped securely to her back, as always.

• 39:02Speaker 02

  When she reaches them, however, she entirely ignores Lewis. Instead, she rushes straight over to the chief, greeting him warmly, while he, in turn, is shocked but delighted to see her. He slides from his horse, and soon they are chatting animatedly in a language Lewis does not understand. Meanwhile, Clark and the rest of the expedition have caught up. Lewis claps his friend on the back, relieved to see him again.

• 39:31Speaker 02

  Finally, their translator finishes her conversation and turns to Lewis and Clark.

• 39:37Speaker 02

  She explains that the people are Shoshone, like her. The chief is her brother, although she has not seen him since she was captured by a rival tribe years ago and taken hundreds of miles away.

• 39:52Speaker 02

  Clark immediately seizes on the opportunity and asks her to negotiate on their behalf for horses, without which their expedition will grind to a halt right here. Boyed by the reunion, the chief is more than happy to trade, and the Americans invite him and his men to enjoy a hot meal with them as the details of the deal are finalized.

• 40:16Speaker 02

  Though just hours ago it seemed doomed to failure, their epic journey across America's new territory can now continue.

• 40:38Speaker 02

  Lewis and Clark's expedition helps to map the new territory for the American government. A vital role is played by Sakajewia, the young Shoshone woman who'd been sold into marriage with Toussaint Charbonnet, a French-Canadian fur trader employed as an interpreter.

• 40:55Speaker 02

  Aged only 16 and carrying her newborn son, she guides the expedition along treacherous rivers and across mountainous terrain, finding edible plants and contributing to Lewis and Clark's field notes with her knowledge of the local flora and fauna, when she proves invaluable as a translator and negotiator with the various indigenous peoples they meet along the route. Another purpose of the expedition was to inform indigenous Americans of Louisiana's new owners.

• 41:29Speaker 03

  And whenever they meet them, they say, "This land is now owned by the United States." And in their journals, they say, "We met with the Indian leaders and they acknowledged the American claim." And my guess is that these native leaders say, "Yeah, you're the latest. The French claimed the land, the Spanish claimed the land. It's our land. But you will be the party we trade and negotiate with now." But to the native peoples who are much closer to US officials, it's more heated. To the Osage, who control most of what is now Missouri, they immediately begin elaborate negotiations with the United States. And they say, "We are happy to trade with you. We see real opportunities in this."

• 42:10Speaker 03

  The United States starts trying to make their claims to Osage land more concrete. They use a variety of means. In 1808, the US signs a major treaty with the Osage through which they cede a large portion of their land. And the principal negotiators of that are Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, who by then are in St. Louis. Meriwether Lewis is the territorial governor. William Clark is the principal Indian agent.

• 42:38Speaker 02

  Still, these negotiations and American claims to the land take decades to become a reality.

• 42:45Speaker 03

  The United States did not truly govern the land it owned through the Louisiana Purchase until the 1870s, because Native Americans remained the governing authority until then. The US manages to extinguish that authority over the course of decades. But it's only what's often now called the Indian Wars of the 1870s that concludes this conflict.

• 43:12Speaker 02

  Back in the early days after the Purchase though, further expeditions are sent under different commanders. But these exacerbate tensions with Spain, whose lands lie to the south and west. As well as concerns about explorers straying into their territory, the Spanish suspect that the United States is trying to forge alliances with indigenous groups against them. Various negotiations now begin to better define where American land ends and Spanish possessions begin.

• 43:46Speaker 02

  Aside from their boundary disputes, other uncertainties remain, especially in the Territory of Orleans. How can a largely French-speaking white population be made American? What role will slavery play? And what is the position of free black people in the Territory?

• 44:04Speaker 03

  Race mattered in the spaces included in the Louisiana Purchase because race is central to American history. By which I mean, it's so often defined the experiences that people in the United States have had. And I really want to emphasize that point because in the US, people argue about this a lot. There are people who say, "Oh, you're just trying to make race part of this as a way to criticize the United States." Others say, "You're avoiding race as a way to ignore things." I'm talking about this very differently. What I want to emphasize is that race really did affect how people had their American experience.

• 44:39Speaker 02

  Rather than simply being a land deal, the Louisiana Purchase is crucial in establishing American social and legal norms over its possession and the people who populate them. In 1806, the Territory of Orleans passes a new slave law, referred to as the Black Code. The French and Spanish system, whereby mixed-race people were a distinct group with certain privileges, is abolished. And free people of color are designated as legally inferior to whites.

• 45:12Speaker 02

  The situation for enslaved people worsens too.

• 45:16Speaker 03

  What they quickly learn as the United States begins to establish forms of its own common law practices onto an older set of legal practices is that various mechanisms through which the enslaved could pursue their freedom suddenly start getting closed off. They can't sue their masters in court. It becomes much more difficult for them to use legal mechanisms to become free.

• 45:45Speaker 02

  Given their legal supremacy, it is perhaps unsurprising that the white Francophone population is content to be absorbed into the United States. Recognizing the economic and political opportunities denied to them as a French colony, they quickly begin agitating for their territory to be made a state, and themselves full American citizens. Not all US politicians are convinced, and continue to view these Louisianans as distinctly foreign. And so, the men of New Orleans work to prove themselves. They vote, run for office, serve in the militia, and do everything they can to prove their loyalty to the United

• 46:25Speaker 02

  States. It works. Soon they are on a path to statehood. Within a few years, the territory of Orleans has an elected territorial government.

• 46:42Speaker 00

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• 47:11Speaker 01

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• 47:40Speaker 02

  In the winter of 1811, 43 men from throughout the Territory of Orleans come together to write a state constitution. But there is still some unease in Washington at the prospect of admitting this new state into the Union.

• 47:54Speaker 03

  There was an argument in Washington DC that was very similar to the argument that occurred in 1803 and 1804, which was, could the people of Louisiana govern themselves? And this turned on their ethnic background. In the same way that race matters, ethnicity matters. They were people saying, what does it mean to have a population where so many people do not speak the majority language, which is English? What does it mean that they've got this different background? And, the crucial thing from my perspective is, first of all, at the end of the day, people will say, what would it mean if we deny them statehood? Then we're an empire.

• 48:33Speaker 02

  The argument for democracy and citizenship wins. Less than a decade after the purchase, the Territory of Orleans is welcomed into the Union in 1812 as the state of Louisiana. To avoid confusion, the vast Louisiana Territory is renamed the Missouri Territory. Over the next several decades, its exact boundaries are worked out between the USA and Spain. They are finally confirmed in a treaty ratified in 1821, 18 years after America had first acquired Louisiana. But its control over this vast landscape is still, to a great extent, theoretical.

• 49:17Speaker 03

  The land the United States claimed included states that many people around the world know about now: Colorado, North Dakota, Wyoming. Colorado was governed principally by the Comanche. The Dakotas were governed principally by the peoples of the Suan language groups. Idaho was governed by people from various Native societies. It took decades for it to be true that the United States truly governed these places. And it happens through conflict, happens in some cases through negotiation, but through repeated conflicts between the United States and Native Americans. And it's really not until the 1870s that the last of the Native peoples who governed

• 50:01Speaker 03

  land that the United States claimed through Louisiana Purchase ceded their claims to the federal government. And that will be just this immensely important part of that story. And that story goes hand in glove with the creation of new states, normalizing this process, showing that the United States can expand.

• 50:24Speaker 02

  By the 1870s, a combination of disease, warfare, territory loss, and the deliberate extermination of bison herds has driven indigenous peoples, including the Comanche, Dakota, and Lakota, onto reservations. U.S. control over the territory they bought from France in 1803 is at last absolute. Over the same period, the United States annexes Texas from a newly independent Mexico and fights a war with them over California and New Mexico. Firm boundaries are established between British Canada and American claims in the Pacific Northwest. By the time it finally has control over Louisiana, the U.S. occupies most of the land it does today.

• 51:11Speaker 02

  The Louisiana Purchase is a story of immense geographic and demographic expansion. With hindsight, it is clear that it was not a single event. Instead, it was a process that took decades. And as it unfolded, it crystallized American ideas about political organization, racial hierarchies, national identity, and the destiny of the country. For better or worse, it made the United States into the nation it is today.

• 51:41Speaker 03

  I ask my students in the classroom, you know, how many of you are from California? How many of you are from Oregon? How many of you are from Kansas? Do you think you should have representation in Congress? And they say, of course! And I say, why? Why do you think you're entitled to that? I'm from Pennsylvania! I'm from a real state! You know, we declared independence in 1776! And they say, no, no, we have to be part of the US. We have to have representation in Congress. And that was a decision that Americans had made in 1787 when they created the Northwest Ordinance. But the Louisiana Purchase really normalized that and applied it over this enormous area of land. And it's hugely, hugely important. So, there are these events that people always have to learn about, and we wonder, was it really that important?

• 52:26Speaker 03

  Well, the Louisiana Purchase was really that important.

• 52:36Speaker 02

  Next time on Short History of, we'll bring you a short history of David Bowie.

• 52:41Speaker 05

  Bowie is someone who can see how stories go, and can see how trends go, and how you need to go left when you're supposed to go right, and zigzag, and so forth. So I think one of the things he does is provide a template for how, as a pop musician, you can have a life, have a career. It's a stretch to compare Taylor Swift to him. But you can see Taylor Swift is doing Bowie stuff, and that she has, every couple of years, she has a new look, she has a new thing, she moves here, she moves there. And I think that's very much a Bowie map.

• 53:19Speaker 02

  If you can't wait a week until the next episode, you can listen to it right away by subscribing to Noiser Plus. Head to www.noiser.com/subscriptions for more information.

• 53:31Speaker 00

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• 54:00Speaker 06

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