372. Freakonomics Radio Live: “Would You Eat a Piece of Chocolate Shaped Like Dog Poop?”

What your disgust level says about your politics, how Napoleon influenced opera, why New York City’s subways may finally run on time, and more. Five compelling guests tell Stephen Dubner, co-host Angela Duckworth, and fact-checker Jody Avirgan lots of things they didn’t know.

Speaker names marked ? are inferred from speaking time and the show’s known hosts — they are not voice-verified.

• 0:01Stephen J. Dubner?

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• 0:33Stephen J. Dubner?

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• 1:04Stephen J. Dubner?

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• 1:54Stephen J. Dubner?

  Freakonomics Radio is sponsored by ChatGPT. ChatGPT Work is a new way to work in ChatGPT. ChatGPT Work can pull info from across your apps and connect to your tools to help you create finished work. You can even automate work in ChatGPT with the Scheduled Tasks feature, and the whole time you stay in control. Put ChatGPT to work on your most ambitious ideas and projects. Get started at chatgpt.com by selecting Work Mode, available on Plus and Pro plans.

• 2:39Stephen J. Dubner?

  Today's episode is a special live installment of Freakonomics Radio. You'll hear about New York City's subway system and the man who's trying to fix it. You'll hear about the relationship between Napoleon and music and the relationship between politics and disgust, which is not as obvious as you might think. If you'd like to attend a future taping of Freakonomics Radio Live, we would love to have you. We have upcoming shows in San Francisco on May 16th, Los Angeles, May 18th, Philadelphia on June 6th, London on September 6th, and in Chicago on September 26th. For details, visit Freakonomics.com/live. And now, here's our show.

• 3:23Stephen J. Dubner?

  Good evening. I'm Stephen Dubner, and this is Freakonomics Radio Live, coming to you tonight from City Winery in New York City.

• 3:33Stephen J. Dubner?

  As you know, Freakonomics Radio is typically a studio show based on lots of forethought and research and extensive interviews. In this live show, we throw all that out the window. No forethought whatsoever. Joining me tonight as co-host, would you please welcome the University of Pennsylvania psychology professor Angela Duckworth.

• 3:57Stephen J. Dubner?

  Angela, if you don't know, is the author of the longtime bestseller Grit, The Power of Passion and Perseverance. She's also CEO of Character Lab and one of the founders of Behavior Change for Good. Angela, what else are you up to?

• 4:12Angela Duckworth?

  Through Character Lab, I'm hoping to quadruple the amount of behavioral science that's done on kids and how they grow up to thrive. So we've been doing OK, but I think we should have more science so that we can have more to talk about on Freakonomics.

• 4:26Stephen J. Dubner?

  Excellent. So as you know, we play here a game called Tell Me Something I Don't Know. We bring guests onstage to tell us some interesting fact or idea or story. You and I will poke and prod them as much as we'd like, and then later on, our live audience will pick a winner. The criteria are very simple. Number one, did they tell us something we truly did not know? Number two, was it truly worth knowing? And number three, was it demonstrably true, which is important? And to help with the demonstrably true part, would you please welcome our real-time fact-checker? He's the host and producer of ESPN's 30 for 30 podcast, Jody Avirgan. Thank you, Jody.

• 5:09Speaker 02

  Hello, Stephen.

• 5:13Stephen J. Dubner?

  Something I learned about you very recently, Jody, is you have a young daughter who has become an internet phenomenon.

• 5:20Speaker 02

  Well, she had a moment as an internet phenomenon. Actually, a photo I took of my daughter went viral. It was a photo we took of her after she'd eaten pizza.

• 5:28Angela Duckworth?

  They were waiting.

• 5:29Speaker 02

  For the first time, the audience is seeing it right now. She went into this sort of blissful state with pizza sauce all over her face, and I put it out into the world, and it just like, it went nuts. I checked this morning, 15 million people have seen this photo off of my Twitter account, and then it got ripped onto all of the meme accounts, and people were sending us examples of it being used in like, random Czechoslovakian advertisements, and the morning shows were asking us to come on, and we kind of just laid low. But yeah, it was kind of a wild ride.

• 6:00Stephen J. Dubner?

  All right, Jody, I'm glad to hear that your daughter is meme-worthy. I'm glad that you are here tonight to be our fact-checker. Our first guest, would you please give a warm welcome? He is president of the New York City Transit Authority, Andy Byford.

• 6:19Stephen J. Dubner?

  Andy, welcome to the show.

• 6:20Speaker 03

  Thank you.

• 6:21Stephen J. Dubner?

  Now, the audience, this puzzles me because...

• 6:26Stephen J. Dubner?

  They're happy. Here's what we know about you, or what I know about you so far. You are president of the Transit Authority.

• 6:31Speaker 03

  That's correct.

• 6:31Stephen J. Dubner?

  Which means that you essentially run the subways and buses, correct?

• 6:35Speaker 03

  That's correct.

• 6:36Stephen J. Dubner?

  And most of these people, including myself, we ride your subways and buses.

• 6:40Speaker 03

  Yeah.

• 6:41Stephen J. Dubner?

  And yet, when you walked in, they applauded.

• 6:43Speaker 03

  Wow.

• 6:44Stephen J. Dubner?

  Which, to me, seems paradoxical.

• 6:46Speaker 03

  Yeah.

• 6:48Stephen J. Dubner?

  So, by what magic has Andy Byford won over the transit riders of New York City?

• 6:53Speaker 03

  A British accent goes a long way.

• 6:55Stephen J. Dubner?

  It really does.

• 6:56Speaker 03

  It's British charm.

• 6:57Stephen J. Dubner?

  And I understand you come from a transit family, correct?

• 6:59Speaker 03

  I do, yeah.

• 7:00Stephen J. Dubner?

  Third generation?

• 7:00Speaker 03

  I do. My granddad drove a bus through the Blitz, actually, through the Blitz. I ride the subway or the bus into work every day. I have never owned a car in my life. I probably never will. I rely on public transit, and I believe in it. I have also failed my driving test twice.

• 7:16Stephen J. Dubner?

  So, compared to the Blitz and buildings being crumbled in the streets, I guess the New York City subways are easy.

• 7:24Speaker 03

  Oh, piece of cake. Yeah, absolutely, yeah. We have a long way to go, but it is improving. And what I want to do tonight is just talk about what we're doing to make it better.

• 7:33Stephen J. Dubner?

  Well, let's start with a little history. Obviously, New York is one of the older subways. I guess London is the oldest in the world?

• 7:39Speaker 03

  London dates back to 1863. Our subway is 1904, coming here. The challenge is the same, but it is exponentially bigger. Interestingly, I'd say 15 to 20 years ago, the London Underground was in a similar state to that in which we find ourselves here in New York today. Stations looking a bit shoddy, unreliable signaling, tired vehicles, you know, lack of funding. Sustained funding has transformed the tube, but that's what we need here today, and a focus on basics, so that's what I want to talk about.

• 8:12Stephen J. Dubner?

  I love that we're getting applause for infrastructure funding. We've never, we've never had that before.

• 8:17Speaker 03

  It's gotta be done.

• 8:18Stephen J. Dubner?

  So, the New York City subways, I understand, it has the worst on-time performance of any major transit system in the world. Is that, is that accurate, first of all?

• 8:25Speaker 03

  It's, we certainly are nowhere near where we need to be. In January of 2018, our on-time performance, admittedly, it was a bad month, but it was woeful, 58, just over 58%. Through relentless focus on basics and substantial investment, a year later, we've got it up to just over 76%.

• 8:46Stephen J. Dubner?

  Now, to be fair, New York subways generally get people where they're going. They can be slow and crowded and unpleasant on occasion, but they're also transporting how many million people a day?

• 8:57Speaker 03

  Well, for the whole of transit, it's 8 million people. It's made up of 5.7 million people on the subway, 2.3 million on the buses. And on a good day, you know, going from the Bronx down to Manhattan, where I work, southern tip of Manhattan, that train hammered down the express line. You try doing that in a cab, and you try doing that for $2.75, you're not gonna do it.

• 9:18Stephen J. Dubner?

  Right. When I think of New York, I think that one reason it was able to grow into the city it did was because it had subways early. And so it was able to move people around a lot underground without tying things up. The downside of that is it was an old system, and therefore, I gather, like any old system, hard to retrofit, right? So, can you just kind of set the scene for us in terms of how good, I guess, the bones still are? And assuming they're good enough to upgrade as you'd like, what are the impediments to the higher speed, the fewer delays, et cetera, et cetera?

• 9:53Speaker 03

  Sure. So, I think fundamentally, the system does have good bones. And let's look at the positives. We do have express tracks. We do have a lot of stations. We have the most stations in the world. We have 472 stations. So, you know, we're starting from a good basis. But on a less positive side, for various reasons, primarily lack of investment, crippling lack of investment, over the past few decades, the subway has been allowed to degrade into the point that now we really struggle with on-time performance because of lack of, two things. One, of lack of service reliability, and two, a crippling lack of capacity.

• 10:30Stephen J. Dubner?

  Can you point some fingers, please?

• 10:35Stephen J. Dubner?

  If your chief argument is that funding is necessary for maintenance of an expensive and complicated system, which seems obvious, where is it, has it been a lack of funding? Has it been poor spending? Is it the typical political hide-and-seek games where the money is diverted? And I would like you to name some names with email addresses, please.

• 10:56Speaker 03

  So, okay. So I think one of the lessons that constantly gets learned in transit is you cannot stop investing in maintenance and what's called state of good repair. People point to the subway system in Washington DC, Wamada. That was built in, I believe it was 1976. It's really groovy. It's a very sort of nice system, but.

• 11:18Stephen J. Dubner?

  Usually on fire, though.

• 11:19Speaker 03

  People in DC, well, that's the thing. People in DC, it stands for Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority. I'm told people say it stands for "we make a town afraid." That's a bad place to be. Why? Because it was a new system. It's like you can put it off. Politicians can put off the investment because, oh, well, it works perfectly fine. So to your question, here, much the same. Politicians have lots of draws on their time. You've got to sort the roads out. You've got to sort out education. You've got to sort out hospitals. And for various reasons, this has snuck up on us. And you see this slow but incessant relentless decline in terms of service reliability. The city's population's grown. The infrastructure's got older. The pressure on it's got higher.

• 12:04Speaker 03

  The funding in real terms has dropped, and that's why we're in the state that we're in.

• 12:09Stephen J. Dubner?

  Hey, a quick note. If what Beiford is saying here about infrastructure and maintenance warms your heart, check out Freakonomics Radio, episode number 263. It's called "In Praise of Maintenance." Okay, back to Andy Beiford.

• 12:23Speaker 03

  So let me tell you what we're doing about it. The city and the state have jointly funded what's called the Subway Action Plan. So it's installing what we call continuously welded rail, better rail that is less prone to rail defects. It's about fixing leaks. It's about renewing components. It's about unblocking drains. So it's really about fixing those elements that were allowed to degrade on the existing system. To me, on arrival, what was missing was the complementary part, which is you must get your operational disciplines right. So when I came here, it drove me crazy, as a railwayman of 30 years' experience, that you see trains sit in the platform, you all see it, doors open, close, open, close, open, close.

• 13:07Speaker 03

  Can we please get going? There were speed restrictions that were not necessary. Speed restrictions went in initially for a valid reason, that either the track had a defect years ago, or because we had trains that were made of wood years ago, or didn't have such strong brakes. Those speed restrictions are no longer necessary. We had what are called signal grade timers, that were put in for a safety reason, but they've been allowed to fall out of calibration.

• 13:34Speaker 02

  So you're saying even when the equipment is capable and the tracks are fine...

• 13:37Speaker 03

  Then it's not properly calibrated. So that was my suspicion. Obviously, you listen to the customers, but you also look at data. What was it about 2012, suddenly the delays went exponentially up? That's when we started putting in those signal grade timers. They were wrongly calibrated. So we have set up a team called the SPEED team. It stands for Subway Performance Evaluation and Education Development. Because we love acronyms, right? We subscribe to the Puma initiative at New York City Transit. You know what Puma stands for? I don't. Please use more acronyms. So we set this team up to cover, on a specialized train,

• 14:19Speaker 03

  every inch of New York City Transit's 600 track miles. They drive at the signal, at the speed that it should be set for, and if the train gets automatically stopped, then the signal is wrongly calibrated. So so far, we have identified 320 such signals that are wrongly calibrated, and we're working our way through correcting them.

• 14:42Speaker 02

  Can I just clarify one thing? You're saying that the only way to test a signal is to take a train and drive it as fast as possible at the signal, and see what happens?

• 14:53Speaker 03

  Well, just for the benefit, this is the fact checker. Just for the benefit of anyone listening on the radio, this fact checker is actually on his third bottle of beer. So I thought I should just say that.

• 15:05Speaker 03

  But just to clarify and to put everyone's minds at rest, when I say drive the train at it, obviously it's for the speed limit that should be, that the signal should clear at that speed.

• 15:16Stephen J. Dubner?

  But still, you need a full train to test the little signal.

• 15:18Speaker 03

  No, this is an empty train. This is an empty train. These are qualified people.

• 15:22Stephen J. Dubner?

  I believe Jody's question is, isn't like there's software or something that does that?

• 15:27Speaker 03

  No, no, you want to test.

• 15:28Stephen J. Dubner?

  You want a train.

• 15:29Speaker 03

  I want to test the reality. Oh, you definitely want to test it with an actual train. A driver, and if that signal, the signal plate says that that signal should clear at, say, 15 miles per hour, but it's actually what we call tripping the station, stopping it at a lesser speed, then it's wrongly calibrated.

• 15:47Stephen J. Dubner?

  Can I ask a funding question? So there is, as I understand it, a relatively new congestion surcharge on taxis and car services. And then, now, there is talk of another congestion fee for vehicles entering certain parts of Manhattan, which is what we more typically think of as a congestion fee. That money, we're told, is directed to, quote, "the subways." So how much money will there be? Is it really coming to you? What is the money going toward, et cetera?

• 16:13Speaker 03

  First of all, the for-hire vehicle surcharge, the one that you just described, and that will now start to see a flow of funding come towards, dedicated funding come towards transit, which I very much welcome, because the one thing working in transit that really cripples you is stop-start funding. You can't plan unless you know, you know, every year you're thinking, well, what are we going to get this year? That's no way to run a business. I need to be able to plan with certainty. The real game changer will be major, sustainable, affordable, long-term sources of funding, and one of those suggested is a congestion charge, because it does two things. One, it cuts congestion, and the other half of my focus is, of course, buses, which have

• 16:55Speaker 03

  the lowest speed of any North American bus system. Why? It's nothing to do with my operators. The buses can't levitate, they're stuck in traffic.

• 17:05Angela Duckworth?

  Not yet.

• 17:05Speaker 03

  We're working on that, by the way. But they're hopelessly stuck in traffic. So what it gives you is less traffic, but the traffic that does come in pay a fee, and that fee must be lockboxt, ring-fenced, cannot be siphoned off anywhere else, guaranteed to go into funding.

• 17:23Stephen J. Dubner?

  What's your annual budget now? And what do you want, let's say, two, five years from now?

• 17:29Speaker 03

  So, I mean, at the moment, the operating budget of New York City Transit's around $8 billion. So it's a big chunk of cash, but bear in mind, you know, this is a huge system in that, you know, we run thousands of services 24/7, which is another reason this is a tricky system to upgrade, because no one wants their lines shut down while we upgrade.

• 17:47Stephen J. Dubner?

  It's like the 24-hour diner, and you always wonder, when do they clean out the fryer?

• 17:50Speaker 03

  There you go. I've often wondered that. That's my next challenge. I've often wondered that. But, so what we really need, though, is to bite the bullet. And I'm saying, with the right funding, sustainable funding, we can turn this system around. No more tweaking. Let's totally re-signal the network. Let's make the system fully accessible. We can't be proud of this system unless and until it is fully accessible to all New Yorkers. Let's sort out the bus network. Let's modernize the prevailing mindset, the bureaucracy of the transit network. So, some specifics. Within the first five years, properly funded, we can re-signal five lines. In the next five years, for a total of 10, we can modernize 11 of the lines.

• 18:35Speaker 03

  In that 10 years, completely modernize 300 stations. We can make 180 stations accessible within that timeframe. I need, we've calculated $40 billion over those 10 years. Can we really not afford $4 billion a year? Maybe two from the state, one from the city, 500 million from Washington DC, 500 million, maybe we could find it in transit. We can move from state of emergency to state of the art within just 10 years.

• 19:05Speaker 03

  Because if we don't do this plan, all that will happen is the infrastructure will get even older, the population will grow even bigger, and the pressure on it will grow harder. But guess what? The price will go up. So now's the time to bite the bullet.

• 19:18Stephen J. Dubner?

  Jody Avirgan, we heard a lot of interesting ideas, some statistics, massive optimism, and I would say energy, which I admire. I mean, I'm a...

• 19:28Speaker 02

  And grit.

• 19:28Stephen J. Dubner?

  Yeah, a lot of grit. I want to talk specifically about one thing, which is you said there is a lack of capacity. Are you running at any given time the maximum number of trains that could be on the system at that time?

• 19:41Speaker 03

  No, we're not. No. And that is again something that we are in the process of addressing. For a classic example of that would be the L line, because that line is one of the two that has communications-based train control, model, and signaling. That currently runs 20 trains per hour. After the upgrade, we'll be able to run more trains because we're providing more power. The signaling system can handle it, there's not enough power, which is ridiculous. So we're addressing that.

• 20:05Stephen J. Dubner?

  Andy Beiford, thank you so much for coming on our show.

• 20:12Stephen J. Dubner?

  Would you please welcome our next guest. She is an economic historian at NYU. She studies creativity and innovation. Her name is Petra Moser.

• 20:27Stephen J. Dubner?

  Petra, how are you tonight?

• 20:28Speaker 04

  Great, thank you.

• 20:29Stephen J. Dubner?

  Good. You teach quite nearby at NYU. Did you, how'd you get here tonight?

• 20:33Speaker 04

  So, babe.

• 20:35Stephen J. Dubner?

  And it worked?

• 20:36Speaker 04

  It did.

• 20:37Stephen J. Dubner?

  What do you have for us tonight, Petra?

• 20:39Speaker 04

  So I wanted to ask you whether you might know, how did Napoleon influence music?

• 20:45Stephen J. Dubner?

  How did Napoleon influence music? Angie Duckworth, do you have any thoughts?

• 20:49Angela Duckworth?

  Did he commission a special piece for Josephine?

• 20:53Speaker 04

  I don't know that, but...

• 20:55Angela Duckworth?

  That's not the answer, then.

• 20:56Speaker 04

  No, that's not the answer. You gotta be a little bit more creative. You gotta think a little bit out of the box.

• 21:02Stephen J. Dubner?

  Did it have to do with war making?

• 21:05Speaker 04

  Yes.

• 21:06Angela Duckworth?

  Did he conquer a nation and then have the

• 21:09Speaker 04

  Yes, yes, yes, yes.

• 21:10Angela Duckworth?

  The musical traditions blend together and make new...

• 21:12Speaker 04

  No.

• 21:14Angela Duckworth?

  I was so close.

• 21:15Speaker 04

  It was good.

• 21:16Angela Duckworth?

  War. We're on it with war, though.

• 21:18Speaker 04

  If we put the two of you together, we're actually getting somewhere, so that's...

• 21:22Stephen J. Dubner?

  Why don't... Since we're not going to get there on our own, why don't you tell us?

• 21:26Speaker 04

  So Napoleon started his Italian campaign at the end of the 18th century. And he won Lombardy and Venetia, which are two states in Italy. These states, by 1801, were under French control, and they got all the French laws, including copyright. But Italy did not have copyrights. So now, you have, in Italy, you have two sets of states. They have the same language, they have similar culture, they both get flooded with Napoleon, with the soldiers, with everything, with the gambling, all of that. But only two states have copyrights for the next 20 years. So now we can actually look what that does to music. Because now, we have these two states where composers own what they produce,

• 22:11Speaker 04

  what they create. And what we wanted to see is whether, once you give an artist an intellectual property right, whether that actually makes them produce more and whether it makes them produce better stuff.

• 22:23Stephen J. Dubner?

  What was your measure for quality?

• 22:26Speaker 04

  Opera is really great. You can quantify both quantity and quality. So quantity is fairly easy, and so that's... It's really helpful that opera is a public art form.

• 22:37Angela Duckworth?

  You can count the number of operas.

• 22:38Speaker 04

  Exactly. So it's public, right? So you can count it. But then, the other thing is that lots of people really love opera, and they write everything about opera. So we have lots of people who just say, "Oh, this was a really notable performance." "There are tons of people at this performance." "People were, like, streaming at the doors." And there's a record of that. So we know which ones are... which were the hits. Then another measure of quality is whether we still play something today. So if something still plays at the Met today, or whether it's still available on Amazon today, whether you can still buy it.

• 23:13Angela Duckworth?

  It's still available on Amazon.

• 23:15Speaker 04

  Whether people want to buy it.

• 23:17Stephen J. Dubner?

  But wouldn't that be directly following on from whether they were popular or not? Isn't that the same thing?

• 23:22Speaker 04

  That's right. There's some androgenity there, right? So if something is popular now.

• 23:26Angela Duckworth?

  Should be, of course, it should be related.

• 23:28Speaker 04

  It may be more.

• 23:29Angela Duckworth?

  How about how many stars it gets on Amazon? Is that part of the academic scholarship?

• 23:33Speaker 04

  Not in this paper.

• 23:34Angela Duckworth?

  Not in this paper.

• 23:35Stephen J. Dubner?

  So I'm not surprised that an economic historian would want to understand the innovation impact of copyright, right? Because copyright and patent, we know there's a lot of debate over how strong it needs to be to encourage the right amount of innovation without overprotecting, et cetera, et cetera, et cetera. Did you go looking for opera first? Did you go looking for Napoleon? Did you go looking for old copyright law?

• 23:59Speaker 04

  No. So I've done a lot of work on patents. And you know when you do the same thing over and over and over again, you just get bored? And I sang a lot as a kid, and I was trying to sing opera in college. And then I took economics at the same time, and I liked that better.

• 24:15Stephen J. Dubner?

  Do you have an example for us of an opera that was composed during that era in one of those, you said Lombardy and Venetia, you said?

• 24:24Speaker 04

  Yep. So we have a Rossini opera, The Italian Algeir, which I think would be a nice one.

• 24:30Stephen J. Dubner?

  Let's hear some.

• 24:51Stephen J. Dubner?

  Okay, Petra, you're welcome to join in if you'd like.

• 24:55Speaker 04

  If you will, I will too.

• 25:00Stephen J. Dubner?

  Let me break in here to say, I chose to not sing that night because I wasn't warmed up. But here's what I sound like when I am.

• 25:19Stephen J. Dubner?

  And here again is the Rossini piece Petra Moser chose to play for us.

• 25:30Stephen J. Dubner?

  Okay, so tell us a bit about this Rossini piece and how it's an example of the phenomenon that you've measured.

• 25:37Speaker 04

  Rossini was a very peculiar character, as many of these composers. He was also, he's, he's, he's poor. And so he is, I think, a good example of the way in which copyright influenced composers. So he really responded to what people paid him. So we have records of him saying to theater managers, like, "Look, you're not paying me enough, so I'm just gonna give you the same stuff over and over and over again." So he's like, "I just take this area and I change it a little bit and that's it." And that's precisely what we think is not novelty, what we think is not creativity. But when he actually got enough money, then he would really make something that was better.

• 26:20Angela Duckworth?

  So what's really interesting about that is that creativity, most people think of as being intrinsically rewarding, right? And in fact, people think that when you pay, you actually decrease the intrinsic motivation. No.

• 26:33Speaker 04

  This completely fits economics. He's poor. His mother and father were Ituran musicians, so he didn't come in saying like, "Oh, I'm just gonna do this for fun." So he did it in part to make money. So suppose, say, a composer today needs like $2,000 to live, right? And say before copyright, you get like just $1,000 per opera. And now with copyright, because they have to pay you for a repeat performance, you get $2,000. So now he only has to write one opera instead of two. And so that gives him the freedom to do precisely what he wants to do. So we actually see this in Rossini and other people, that they make things more complicated, they play around with things, and he now has more time and has more freedom. So it's like a wealth effect.

• 27:17Stephen J. Dubner?

  I'm curious where you land on issues of copyright and patent ownership in a world that's obviously gotten a lot more complicated. And what your position is on the optimal copyright policy?

• 27:30Speaker 04

  Having basic copyright protection is important for two reasons. The first one is that it gives people an incentive to produce better work. But then the other one is if you actually make art, something that people can make money off, you also change the type of person who can become an artist. So we see this actually with 19th century novelists. Before copyrights were really a thing, the only people who would write would people, when we matched them with their parents' wealth records, they were actually just wealthy. There'd be men and women, but they would both be wealthy. Once you have stronger copyrights in England, then when you look again at the parents of the people who become writers, who become novelists, now all of a sudden we have people

• 28:15Speaker 04

  from like humbler backgrounds.

• 28:17Stephen J. Dubner?

  Petra, thank you so much for playing with us.

• 28:24Stephen J. Dubner?

  Our next guest is a psychology professor at Cornell who studies how people make moral and ethical judgments. Would you please welcome David Pizarro?

• 28:38Stephen J. Dubner?

  Hi, David. What do you have for us tonight?

• 28:40Speaker 05

  Suppose that you walked into a public restroom and there's-

• 28:44Stephen J. Dubner?

  Whatever comes next is not good.

• 28:48Speaker 05

  And there's just a mess, an unflushed toilet. How disgusted would you be? Say 10 really, really, really disgusted, zero wouldn't bother you at all.

• 28:56Stephen J. Dubner?

  Yeah, this one goes to 11, I'm gonna say.

• 28:58Angela Duckworth?

  It depends on what's in the toilet. As low as five, as high as 10.

• 29:03Speaker 05

  I'd probably be in the 3 to 6 range.

• 29:05Stephen J. Dubner?

  Really?

• 29:06Speaker 05

  Yeah.

• 29:06Stephen J. Dubner?

  Yeah.

• 29:07Speaker 05

  I've seen some stuff.

• 29:13Speaker 05

  My follow-up is what do you think this has to do with who you voted for in the last election, say the presidential election?

• 29:24Stephen J. Dubner?

  And do you study disgust?

• 29:26Speaker 05

  I do study disgust. I'm really easily disgusted, so it's a difficult thing to do, but that's what grad students are for.

• 29:36Stephen J. Dubner?

  All right, so the example you're using is an unflosh toilet. You could use different examples.

• 29:40Speaker 05

  One of my favorite examples, actually. How disgusted would you be if you took a sip of a soda can and realized it wasn't yours? It was a stranger's.

• 29:46Angela Duckworth?

  Oh.

• 29:47Stephen J. Dubner?

  Really?

• 29:48Angela Duckworth?

  Not zero.

• 29:49Speaker 05

  Zero, yeah.

• 29:50Angela Duckworth?

  I ate food backstage of literally everybody's.

• 29:54Stephen J. Dubner?

  My plate, actually.

• 29:55Angela Duckworth?

  Yes, and I didn't even know whose it was. Yeah.

• 29:58Stephen J. Dubner?

  You know, I'm glad you brought that up, because I thought that was really strange.

• 30:02Angela Duckworth?

  It was not disgusting.

• 30:03Stephen J. Dubner?

  Yeah. So you're looking at how the emotion... Is disgust an emotion, by the way?

• 30:09Speaker 05

  Yeah, most people call it an emotion. I mean, there's some debate, because it seems a little different from the other emotions, because it's so reflexive. But I think most people who study disgust would call it an emotion.

• 30:18Stephen J. Dubner?

  But what you're getting at is your research is about the relationship between disgust and political affiliation?

• 30:24Speaker 05

  That's right, political orientation. So how conservative or liberal are you on the spectrum? And what we found, the more disgusted you were, the more likely you were to say you were conservative. We've now looked at this across different countries, in different languages. We keep finding this relationship. The more easily disgusted people say they are, the more likely they are to be toward the right of the scale, less easily disgusted toward the left.

• 30:46Stephen J. Dubner?

  Let me ask you. So there's a question we came across in a series we've been doing on creativity, and especially if you're in the creative arts, the political orientation is way, way left. And so that led to conversations about, is there something about creativity in the arts that is correlated with liberalism? Because if you think of liberalism as essentially wanting to change the state of the thing, and conservatism as an attitude toward traditionalism, I'm curious whether you have anything to say about the mechanism by which that kind of relationship may exist.

• 31:17Speaker 05

  Yeah, that's been the most interesting question to us, because if you just demonstrate a relationship, that doesn't get at the heart of the question. The question was, what is the nature of this relationship? So one way to ask that is, what part of conservatism is really being captured by this? And so in looking at various measures, what we see is exactly what you said, Stephen, that it's the traditionalism aspect, keeping things the way they are. So the old ways of doing things are good, don't do the new things. This shows up in other ways that you could ask. The question. So one of the big findings in personality psychology is the dimension called openness to experience. People who are more liberal are very high in openness to experience. They they want to try out new things. People who are more conservative, very low in openness to experience. So you can see disgust as

• 32:00Speaker 05

  one of those emotions that's kind of like, well, I have a set level. How risky do I want to behave for a reward? So do I try a new food?

• 32:07Angela Duckworth?

  So is it true then that picky eaters and hypochondriacs are more likely to be politically conservative?

• 32:15Speaker 05

  I don't know the answer to the picky eaters. That's a very good question.

• 32:19Angela Duckworth?

  That would be your prediction, maybe, right?

• 32:20Speaker 05

  It would be the prediction. Although I, you know, whenever I talk about this stuff, I always want to point out that this isn't like, you know, it's not as if how grossed out you are is like 100% predictive. About between 3 and 10% of why you might be liberal or conservative seems to be captured by disgust measures.

• 32:37Stephen J. Dubner?

  Hey, something I've wondered about a long time is the people who care for sick people, let's say. I'm astonished that they're able to do it so well and regularly, etc. And I often wonder, is that acclimation? Or is it a trait?

• 32:51Speaker 05

  That's a, that's a really good question. And in fact, Angela's colleague at Pennsylvania, Paul Rosin, one of the pioneers who studied this, did a study looking at med students, first year med students, asking this question. Trying to see if, if you ask a bunch of questions like the ones I ask you, like in general, how easily disgusted are you in everyday life? And you get a score. So if we asked everybody here, there'd be, you know, a nice, normal distribution. Some people are really easily, some people are not. He was asking those questions of incoming med students. And what he found was that most students were like the rest of the population coming in. After a year of medical school, when, as you might know, you have to poke into bodies and you get used to bodily fluids and all that stuff.

• 33:31Speaker 05

  They were less disgusted when it came to that stuff, but not in general. They were still disgusted by all the other stuff, but they acclimated. So the answer to your question is, we are really good at acclimating to specific things. Anybody who's a parent knows you get used to certain things.

• 33:45Stephen J. Dubner?

  Jodi Avirgan, David Pizarro has been telling us about the politics of disgust, which are really interesting and lead to a lot of interesting thoughts and questions. Anything factual we should know?

• 33:54Speaker 02

  Exactly, in fact, I do want to go back to how you actually measure disgust. You ask people about hypothetical scenarios and ask them to rate how disgusted they would be.

• 34:02Speaker 05

  That's one way.

• 34:03Speaker 02

  Do you trust that?

• 34:04Speaker 05

  Other people have done the work of correlating the responses.

• 34:07Speaker 02

  Actually disgusting people.

• 34:08Speaker 05

  Of actually disgusting people. So they've brought people into the lab and they've asked them to do really gross but safe things. So would you eat a piece of chocolate shaped like dog poop?

• 34:18Angela Duckworth?

  Yes.

• 34:19Speaker 05

  Right.

• 34:22Stephen J. Dubner?

  I think Angela's answer says less about her liberalism than about her chocolate attitude.

• 34:28Speaker 05

  That is true. That may be right, and that's why it is a noisy measure.

• 34:32Stephen J. Dubner?

  Exactly. David Pizarro, thank you so much. Really enjoyed having you here.

• 34:39Stephen J. Dubner?

  It is time now for a quick break. If you'd like to attend a future Freakonomics Radio live show or be a guest on a future show, visit Freakonomics.com/live. We will be right back.

• 34:57Stephen J. Dubner?

  Freakonomics Radio, sponsored by Granola. You know that moment when a meeting ends and someone says, "Let's circle back on this next week," and everyone nods but no one writes it down? Then next week rolls around and it's radio silence? That's why Granola exists. Granola is an AI-powered notepad built for the way real people actually meet. You take rough notes like you normally would, and in the background, Granola securely transcribes the meeting. Then it turns everything into clean, structured, actually useful notes when the meeting ends. And the best part? Granola works through your device's audio, which means it integrates seamlessly into the video conferencing tools you already use. No setup, no awkward bots. It's just your normal meeting with superpowers. If meetings are eating up your day, Granola is a no-brainer. You can try it totally free.

• 35:41Stephen J. Dubner?

  Just head to granola.ai/freakonomics. That's granola.ai/freakonomics to get your time back. Try it for free at granola.ai/freakonomics.

• 35:59Stephen J. Dubner?

  Freakonomics Radio is sponsored by Southern New Hampshire University. The best investments are the ones you make in yourself, and no one knows that better than Southern New Hampshire University. With more than 200 online degree programs, no set class times, and low online tuition, Southern New Hampshire University is built to fit your life today and set you up for success tomorrow. Education is an investment. Why not make it a smart one? Apply for free at SNHU.edu/freakonomics. Freakonomics Radio is sponsored by hotels.com. Hotels.com helps you find and book the right stay for work faster. With business preferences, save your travel must haves, like gym access or breakfast,

• 36:44Stephen J. Dubner?

  just once, then get tailored results whenever you search for work travel. Plus, with a free membership, you can save up to 20% on hotels and earn rewards on every stay for future travel. Book now at hotels.com. Visit hotels.com for details. Welcome back to Freakonomics Radio Live. My name is Stephen Dubner. Angela Duckworth is our co-host. Jody Avrigan is our real-time fact-checker. And our next guest is the Commissioner of the New York City Department of Transportation.

• 37:23Stephen J. Dubner?

  Please welcome Polly Trottenberg. Polly, nice to have you here.

• 37:32Speaker 06

  Thanks for having me.

• 37:33Stephen J. Dubner?

  First of all, tell us what the New York City Department of Transportation, I guess, is and does, and how it differs from Andy Byford's New York City Transit Authority, please.

• 37:42Speaker 06

  It's a good question. Andy and I work together a lot, but New York City Department of Transportation, we're responsible for roads, bridges, bike lanes, ferries, bike share, car share.

• 37:55Stephen J. Dubner?

  Before we get into what you're working on and what you're going to tell us, can you just... You know, Andy began by describing kind of the general state of transit. What about your overall view? What are the big problems and how many different dimensions do they exist on?

• 38:12Speaker 06

  We actually have a different kind of challenge for a lot of my infrastructure, which is, it's kind of a fun challenge. The city is growing in leaps and bounds. New York City now, population 8.6 million people, the highest it has been in the city's history, 62 million tourists last year, incredible economic activity, construction. And then, of course, we have things like Uber and Lyft and Amazon and Fresh Direct, which have just filled our streets and made an incredible competition for space.

• 38:44Stephen J. Dubner?

  Side note, Fresh Direct is an online grocery delivery company in New York. They're famous for having their trucks idle on the streets for hours. But one other thing they do is they rate their fruit on a five-star scale. So whatever fruit has five stars this week, maybe it's pixie tangerines or red plum cuts, you know they'll be at peak flavor. It's a smart system, and I wish this practice would spread. Just thought you might like to know. Back now to Transportation Commissioner Polly Trottenberg.

• 39:12Speaker 06

  Meanwhile, a new generation that's not so car-centric. They like transit, they want to ride bikes, they maybe want to ride scooters. And so there's a big competition now, at least in my world, for street space.

• 39:23Stephen J. Dubner?

  So what do you have for us tonight specifically, then?

• 39:25Speaker 06

  Well, when you build a bike lane on an avenue in New York City, what happens?

• 39:30Stephen J. Dubner?

  You're asking about safety? Are you asking about congestion? Are you asking about, you know, density, speed, or whatnot?

• 39:36Speaker 06

  I mean, all of the above. There's a traditional view when people who maybe aren't cyclists think about bike lanes, they focus on the traffic elements of it. But there are actually a whole lot of other elements that come in when you put in a bike

• 39:48Stephen J. Dubner?

  So I do know that when you add a lane to a highway, let's say, it actually doesn't ease congestion because it draws more--

• 39:54Speaker 06

  Induce demand, is the phrase you would use.

• 39:57Stephen J. Dubner?

  So is it the case that when you subtract a lane of car traffic and replace it with a bike lane, that actually it does not cause car congestion problems?

• 40:07Speaker 06

  I'm happy to say, if you take out that lane, but you redesign the street-- At the same time, you make the traffic move in a more orderly way. You put in turn lanes and you change the signaling. You can keep the traffic speeds, some cases better, in a lot of cases, sort of the same, while also adding in a safe space for cyclists. And just one of the statistics, where we put in bike lanes, we see huge safety improvements, not only for cyclists, who we consider a vulnerable population on the streets, but for pedestrians and for motorists too, because it calms the traffic and it organizes it better.

• 40:38Stephen J. Dubner?

  I love the way that you frame the problem, which is that there's a competition for a resource, and the resource is space, um, street space, lane space, and so on. One thing that I'm curious on your position, in terms of congestion in New York City, I believe that 97% of New York's street parking is free. Transportation scholars have found that an enormous amount of congestion in New York, and other places that offer free parking, is caused by cars cruising around, looking for a parking spot. So economists think this is idiotic, that you've got something of value, this parking space, that you're charging zero for, um, especially when it has so many negative externalities, causing congestion for everybody else, pollution, et cetera, et cetera, et cetera.

• 41:23Stephen J. Dubner?

  So, have you thought about eliminating or severely limiting free street parking as a means to address congestion generally in New York City?

• 41:32Speaker 06

  Obviously, from the economist's point of view, it's the same problem, both the parking and the road space, which is, it's a scarce resource, and demand greatly exceeds supply, we should price it. It's a perfectly logical economic place to be. It is an impossible political place to be.

• 41:48Angela Duckworth?

  Nobody wants to give up their free parking.

• 41:51Speaker 06

  The politics of parking has been certainly, for me, one of the most eye-opening parts of my job. It is something that is very, sort of intensely debated. We have, over the time that I've been in this job for five years, we have modestly raised parking rates. We have added in, in some places, bike share and car share, and so in that way, taken some of those spaces and repurposed them for uses that are more shared. But it's certainly been a slow process.

• 42:16Angela Duckworth?

  Is that, is that because of the endowment effect? That, that now that people already have their free parking, I mean, hard to get, but free parking, you just can't take it away?

• 42:26Speaker 06

  Yes. It's not complicated.

• 42:31Angela Duckworth?

  Can I ask, you are somebody who has a really hard job, but you seem to-

• 42:35Speaker 06

  And a lot of grit.

• 42:36Angela Duckworth?

  Well, that is where I was going. A lot of grit.

• 42:43Angela Duckworth?

  And I wanted to know how you got into this, I mean, I don't know if you were a little girl and said, "I'm going to be the commissioner of the New York City Department of Transportation."

• 42:51Speaker 06

  No.

• 42:53Angela Duckworth?

  So can you just share a little bit of the story? How did you get into this calling?

• 42:57Speaker 06

  I went to college here in New York, sort of back, maybe, in what we would say were the bad old days, when the city was experiencing a lot of difficulties, a lot of crime, a lot of disinvestment. And I just got very interested in sort of urban policy and transportation policy. And one of the great success stories of New York, again, why my streets are so full, why Andy's subways are so full, we took a city where there had been disinvestment and we really turned it around. You know, one time the Williamsburg Bridge was shut down because it was coming to pieces. Now we really invest in our bridges and our roads. So I think being part of that process, and now today, we have bikes and scooters and Uber and Lyft and all these other really exciting changes.

• 43:34Angela Duckworth?

  Does the bike lane innovation actually improve physical health? Because one of the other major trends over the last 50 years is that we just sit around all the time.

• 43:44Speaker 06

  Absolutely. I mean, you know, if you think about cycling as a mode, it is an inexpensive mode to own and operate and for us to provide for. I mean, basically, it's paint. It emits no carbon, it burns no fuel, it gets you moving, it's physical exercise, it connects you to your city. Of course, it is terrific for sort of general, individual health, public health, and the health of the environment of the city.

• 44:06Angela Duckworth?

  But is there any evidence of that? I mean, I'm wondering whether, you know, when you put in a new bike lane, there's any measure that the physical health of that, I don't know, community, that neighborhood has a... That might be very difficult to quantify, but it would be very exciting if you could.

• 44:19Speaker 06

  Well, we're actually going to be looking at the long-term health statistics. Anecdotally, we see evidence that it is getting people moving, particularly kids, which is, I don't know, maybe Jody will dig up some better numbers than I have.

• 44:30Stephen J. Dubner?

  If you were able to start from scratch, would you have streets on a grid system? Because one thing that a grid does is it encourages speed because it's wide open, straight.

• 44:39Speaker 06

  There's a wonderful book written just recently about how the grid came about in New York City, and it was sort of a bunch of half-drunk and foreign guys who threw it together, a little half-pazidly. When you read the book, it's very surprising. And- You know, when I'm in other cities where they have less of a grid, and for example, they have alleyways, I like to joke, I have alley envy. Because here in New York, without those alleys, there aren't the places for the garbage trucks, and the deliveries, and the utility poles. Everything has to happen on those same streets, where the cars are traveling, the buses are traveling, the bikes are traveling, and the pedestrians are traveling. So, no, I think, I think there are places where a grid is very efficient, but I would design it very differently.

• 45:17Stephen J. Dubner?

  Jodi Avirgan, Polly Trottenberg has been telling us about the roads primarily, and other things in her purview. Did you find anything that needs flagging?

• 45:25Speaker 02

  Angela, to your question about effects on public health, there is one study from the Mailman School here at Columbia University. It tries to measure the effect of a bike lane on an increase in the probability of riding a bike, and then quantify the effect on health and reduce pollution, and then measures that against other public health measures. And the conclusion is that investments in bike lanes are more cost-effective than the majority of preventative approaches used today. So, you know, we'll see. That's one study.

• 45:51Stephen J. Dubner?

  Polly Trottenberg, thank you so much for joining us tonight.

• 45:58Stephen J. Dubner?

  It is time, I'm so sad to say, for tonight's final guest. She is a professor of mechanical engineering at the University of Pittsburgh. Would you please welcome Katherine Hornbosa.

• 46:14Stephen J. Dubner?

  Katherine, it is nice to have you. You are our last guest tonight, so make it good. What do you have for us?

• 46:19Speaker 07

  All right, no pressure. So, if I handed you a bucket filled with water and laundry detergent, and asked you to tackle global warming, what would you do?

• 46:28Stephen J. Dubner?

  Oh, that's so easy.

• 46:31Speaker 07

  You would wash something?

• 46:33Stephen J. Dubner?

  I would make a giant bubble bath.

• 46:38Speaker 07

  With laundry detergent.

• 46:40Stephen J. Dubner?

  Hey, hey.

• 46:41Speaker 07

  Just saying.

• 46:41Stephen J. Dubner?

  Don't yuck my yum. I would make a giant bubble bath and I would invite the climate lions and the climate lambs to lie down together in the bubble bath and relax and proceed to have an empirical sane conversation about the best ways to address climate change. That's what I would do with a big bucket of soapy water.

• 47:05Speaker 07

  I really like that approach.

• 47:06Stephen J. Dubner?

  Are we done here?

• 47:09Speaker 07

  That was exactly what she was gonna recommend. I can't say I wrote about that approach in my paper. Do you have any other suggestions?

• 47:15Angela Duckworth?

  I don't really know what's in laundry detergent. Can you give me a hint?

• 47:18Speaker 07

  Yeah, so I'm actually talking about the active ingredient sodium carbonate. I don't know if that helps.

• 47:24Angela Duckworth?

  Sodium carbonate. Is that baking soda?

• 47:26Speaker 07

  Very similar.

• 47:27Stephen J. Dubner?

  Would you wash the sky?

• 47:29Speaker 07

  Not quite. What would I be washed? Are you saying like throw a bubble bath in the air?

• 47:36Stephen J. Dubner?

  You know, like one of those geoengineering schemes that run a giant hose into the stratosphere and spray out some benign material that reflects sunlight. That kind of thing?

• 47:44Angela Duckworth?

  Is that a thing?

• 47:45Speaker 07

  Not quite. That is a very creative approach. So I'll give you guys a little bit of a hint. So I'm going to send you to a coal power plant with this bucket of water and detergent.

• 47:56Angela Duckworth?

  So what is the specific, I guess, byproduct or whatever of coal burning or that's bad? And then maybe we'll be a little closer.

• 48:04Speaker 07

  There are a lot of things that come off of coal that are bad. Some of them, thankfully, we already have regulations against. So things like SOX and NOX, they already scrub a lot of the crap that comes off of coal plants.

• 48:14Stephen J. Dubner?

  Can you give the full name of SOX and NOX, please?

• 48:17Speaker 07

  So sulfur oxides and nitrous oxides.

• 48:21Stephen J. Dubner?

  Okay, very good.

• 48:22Speaker 07

  Just gaseous compounds that are bad for the environment.

• 48:23Stephen J. Dubner?

  Because we all thought it was a Dr. Seuss story.

• 48:25Angela Duckworth?

  It's like, oh, that is so cute. Why would they want to legislate against them?

• 48:30Speaker 07

  So carbon dioxide is the other obvious one that there are no regulations for currently for coal plants.

• 48:36Stephen J. Dubner?

  Are some of the emissions in a coal plant, do they react in some way negatively, I guess, with sodium carbonate? Is that the idea?

• 48:43Speaker 07

  You're on the right track. You're getting very close.

• 48:44Stephen J. Dubner?

  So I don't think we're going to get closer without a mechanical engineering degree, which you do have.

• 48:49Speaker 07

  So this particular combination, water and sodium carbonate, if you dissolve it in water, can react with carbon dioxide and extract it from a gas stream coming off a coal plant. And the really interesting thing that I've studied is that if you put these chemicals into little capsules that look like caviar, you can actually pack them into a reactor, attach it to a power plant, and selectively take out the carbon dioxide that's being released from the exhaust.

• 49:17Stephen J. Dubner?

  So you're describing a form of carbon capture, correct?

• 49:20Speaker 07

  Yes, it is a carbon capture technology.

• 49:21Stephen J. Dubner?

  What stage is it in? Are you one of the inventors of said technology?

• 49:25Speaker 07

  So, yes, I was on a team at a national lab from the DOE that invented and kind of studied this technology. It's been demonstrated at a lab scale. Currently, we're looking for partners to kind of adopt it.

• 49:38Stephen J. Dubner?

  Commercialize it?

• 49:39Speaker 07

  Not at a power plant scale yet, but at smaller scales to test out and figure out the key and try to scale it up more.

• 49:44Stephen J. Dubner?

  And what you're describing, there's obviously chemical reactions there, but is it essentially a filter?

• 49:51Speaker 07

  It's a good question. It's not exactly a filter. I guess you could think of it from a big picture standpoint as a filter, though. So you're sending the nasty gas from a power plant through it. It selectively takes out carbon dioxide. At some point, it reaches capacity, and then you have to desorb or remove the CO2 from the full solution.

• 50:11Stephen J. Dubner?

  How do you do that?

• 50:12Speaker 07

  So usually, you have to heat up steam and send it through these capsules, and it'll take the carbon dioxide back out, and then you pressurize it and put it underground.

• 50:20Stephen J. Dubner?

  Okay, so it's carbon capture, you bury the carbon underground, which some people have big concerns about there. What's your level of concern on that?

• 50:28Speaker 07

  I think that's very safe. It's actually being done already in a lot of places. It's fairly safe, and there's a lot of science to back up the fact that it's not going to leak out or cause problems.

• 50:37Angela Duckworth?

  Does it stay there forever?

• 50:39Speaker 07

  Really, again, if you find the right formations, that's kind of beyond my research area, but the scientists on that side are pretty confident you can store a A lot of carbon dioxide underground. Just the sheer magnitude of carbon dioxide emissions requires that we put it underground at this point.

• 50:52Stephen J. Dubner?

  So the unit or machine that you're talking about, what do you call it?

• 50:55Speaker 07

  So I guess I would call it a reactor. So it's basically a giant vat filled with this solution that will react with carbon dioxide to hold it until you need to release it and store it.

• 51:06Stephen J. Dubner?

  So I can't tell whether it's because you cleverly began the conversation by talking about laundry detergent. Was it as simple, really, as just getting something kind of like laundry detergent and figuring out how that responded to these carbon emissions?

• 51:18Speaker 07

  Yeah, I mean, so it is simple compared to other technologies for carbon capture. By putting them in small capsules, what you're essentially doing is raising the surface area. So imagine like a big vat filled with caviar. You have a very large surface area of contact between the liquid in those capsules and then the gas flowing through, which really allows you to use these very simple ingredients instead of a very tricky or corrosive solvent instead.

• 51:43Angela Duckworth?

  So you said laundry detergent is a lot like baking soda? Now, this might be a digression, Stephen, but since I have a mechanical engineering professor, is that little box of baking soda that I have in my refrigerator, is it really absorbing the odors?

• 51:59Speaker 07

  Oh, that is an excellent question.

• 52:03Stephen J. Dubner?

  I love how she can tell us about carbon capture, and this is the tough question for her.

• 52:06Angela Duckworth?

  This is the most important question of the evening.

• 52:09Speaker 07

  The more degrees you get, the further removed you are from practical solutions to things like that. So sodium carbonate reacts with carbon dioxide and actually forms baking soda. So that is the reaction, that's the product of this reaction.

• 52:21Angela Duckworth?

  Ah, it's the product.

• 52:23Speaker 07

  And so I guess what to emphasize here is that both the initial chemical and the final product are both very safe, very cheap, very abundant.

• 52:30Angela Duckworth?

  I have to ask this question. This is such a simple, elegant, common sense, straightforward, hiding in blinds. Was your team composed mostly of women?

• 52:41Speaker 07

  We had a very good proportion of women on my team.

• 52:43Angela Duckworth?

  Just a hypothesis.

• 52:49Stephen J. Dubner?

  So when I hear the words "safe, cheap, and abundant", it does sound literally too good to be true. So let's pretend that you were not involved with this project at all, but you knew about it, and you knew all the other competing carbon capture systems that are being developed and funded and so on. What would you put the odds of this project succeeding? I'm not saying as the only carbon capture solution, but as a significant one.

• 53:14Speaker 07

  So I'm very confident that it could work if we invested and did it. Confidence in terms of whether or not this will be the winning technology, lower, much lower, just because there are a lot of technologies out there for carbon capture, there's a lot of competition, there are some others that are much more mature than ours.

• 53:30Stephen J. Dubner?

  Does it have a name?

• 53:31Speaker 07

  And we call it MECs, is an acronym, so Micro Encapsulated Carbonate Solution.

• 53:37Stephen J. Dubner?

  Do you think we could crowdsource a...

• 53:39Speaker 07

  Sure, I just call them capsules, but I'm open to suggestions for something funnier.

• 53:43Stephen J. Dubner?

  I like the caviar idea.

• 53:43Speaker 07

  Caviar, carbon capture caviar, that's too much of a mouthful.

• 53:46Stephen J. Dubner?

  Carbon capture caviar.

• 53:48Angela Duckworth?

  Oh, I like that.

• 53:49Stephen J. Dubner?

  It says here you invented something else a few years back called the Pump2Baby bottle?

• 53:54Speaker 07

  I didn't expect you to bring that little curveball up, yes. So I had twins when I was in grad school. I was pumping for them, and they did not nurse well. And so I invented this little hack where you can actually feed your babies breast milk as you're pumping it. So you attach it to any breast pump. As you're pumping the milk, the baby starts drinking it.

• 54:12Angela Duckworth?

  Oh my, that is genius.

• 54:14Speaker 07

  So, thank you.

• 54:16Angela Duckworth?

  Did you patent it, did you make a lot of money?

• 54:17Speaker 07

  In the process of patent prosecution right now. Filed for patent, working on it.

• 54:21Stephen J. Dubner?

  Congratulations.

• 54:22Speaker 07

  Thank you.

• 54:22Angela Duckworth?

  If you are not jumping up and down with excitement about it, then you have not nursed a child or pumped.

• 54:28Stephen J. Dubner?

  Yes, I haven't, I'm gonna confess right now. Hey Catherine Hornbostle, thank you so much for telling us something we did not know.

• 54:35Speaker 07

  Thank you.

• 54:38Stephen J. Dubner?

  And can we get one more hand here for all our guests, please?

• 54:47Stephen J. Dubner?

  It is time now for our live audience to pick a winner. Obviously, all our guests came here in the spirit of inquiry and information sharing, so we shouldn't reduce this thing to a horse race. But, well, this is America, and we really like to know who wins. So we will ask our live audience to pick a winner via text. I'd like you to remember the criteria. Did they tell you something you did not know? Was it worth knowing? And was it demonstrably true? Who's it going to be? Andy Byford with How to Fix New York City's Subways? Petra Moser with Napoleon's Copyright Legacy? David Pizarro with The Politics of Disgust? Polly Trottenberg with How to Fix New York City's Roads?

• 55:28Stephen J. Dubner?

  Or Catherine Hornbostle with How to Launder Your Carbon? While our live audience is voting, let me ask you a favor. If you enjoy Freakonomics Radio, including this live version of Tell Me Something I Don't Know, please spread the word. Give it a nice rating on Apple Podcasts, Stitcher, or wherever you get your podcasts. Thank you so much.

• 55:51Stephen J. Dubner?

  Okay, the audience vote is in. Once again, thank you so much to all our guest presenters. Our grand prize winner tonight, we had a dead tie. So thank you so much to both Andy Byford and Petra Moser for telling us about fixing New York City's subways and Napoleon's copyright legacy. To commemorate your victories, you will each receive this certificate of impressive knowledge. And it reads, "I, Stephen Dubner, in consultation with Angela Duckworth and Jody Avirgan, do solemnly swear that both Andy Byford and Petra Moser told us something we did not know, and for that, we are eternally grateful." Thank you so much.

• 56:33Stephen J. Dubner?

  That's our show for tonight. I hope we told you something you did not know. Huge thanks to Jody and Angela, to our guests, and thanks especially to you for coming to play Tell Me Something. I don't know. Thank you very much.

• 56:49Stephen J. Dubner?

  Coming up next time on Freakonomics Radio, as housing prices keep rising in the most desirable cities, politicians often reach for a time honored solution: rent control.

• 56:59Speaker 08

  From an economics point of view, indeed, it provides insurance against getting priced out of your neighborhood.

• 57:06Stephen J. Dubner?

  And what do economists think of rent control?

• 57:09Speaker 09

  It's not particularly fair. It's not a good way of allocating scarce space. It's not a good way of helping the downtrodden.

• 57:18Stephen J. Dubner?

  The economics and politics of rent control, that's next time on Freakonomics Radio. Freakonomics Radio is produced by Stitcher and Dubner Productions. Our staff includes Alison Kreglow, Greg Rippon, Harry Huggins, Zach Lipinski, and Corinne Wallace. We had help this week from Morgan Levy, David Herman, and Dan DeZula. Our theme song is "Mr. Fortune" by The Hitchhikers. All our other music was composed by Luis Guerra. You can subscribe to Freakonomics Radio on Apple Podcasts or wherever you get your podcasts. The entire archive is available on the Stitcher app or at Freakonomics.com, where we also publish transcripts, show notes, and more. If you want the entire archive ad free, plus lots of bonus episodes, go to StitcherPremium.com/Freakonomics.

• 58:02Stephen J. Dubner?

  We can also be found on Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn, or via email at [email protected]. Freakonomics Radio also plays on many NPR stations, so check your local station for details. As always, thank you for listening.

• 58:20Stephen J. Dubner?

  What do you think? I believe that down to my toes.

• 58:26Stephen J. Dubner?

  Stitcher.

• 58:32Stephen J. Dubner?

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• 59:03Stephen J. Dubner?

  Freakonomics Radio is sponsored by US Bank Smartly Checking and Savings. You know, US Bank Smartly Checking and Savings are bank accounts that work harder for you. You get better savings rates, fee waivers, and rewards from day one, so you spend less time worrying about money and more on what matters. Sign up for US Bank Smartly Checking and Savings today at usbank.com/smartly. Member FDIC. Copyright 2026 US Bank.

• 59:35Stephen J. Dubner?

  Freakonomics Radio is sponsored by Southern Company. The world and its energy needs are always changing. Southern Company's commitment to meeting this demand stays the same. That's because Southern Company believes energy is more than a utility. It's what powers possibilities. So they are looking ahead and investing $80 billion in infrastructure upgrades and are committed to fueling growth in ways that benefit all customers so that reliable and affordable energy is accessible for generations to come. Go to southerncompany.com to learn more. Southern Company, building the future of energy.

• 1:00:13Speaker 10

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