Challenger Disaster | Acceptable Risk | 2

As NASA struggles to keep its ambitious launch schedule on track, engineers at contractor Morton Thiokol raise concerns about a key component of the space shuttle’s rocket boosters: O-Rings, which are designed to prevent fuel leaks. Amid this tension, the Teacher in Space program captivates the nation after Christa McAuliffe is selected, raising public interest in the launch. Be the first to know about Wondery’s newest podcasts, curated recommendations, and more! Sign up now at https://wondery.fm/wonderynewsletter Listen to American Scandal on the Wondery App or wherever you get your podcasts. Experience all episodes ad-free and be the first to binge the newest season. Unlock exclusive early access by joining Wondery+ in the Wondery App, Apple Podcasts or Spotify. Start your free trial today by visiting wondery.com/links/american-scandal/ now. See Privacy Policy at https://art19.com/privacy and California Privacy Notice at https://art19.com/privacy#do-not-sell-my-info.

Speaker names marked ? are inferred from speaking time and the show’s known hosts — they are not voice-verified.

• 0:00Lindsay Graham?

  Audible subscribers can binge new seasons of American Scandal early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts.

• 0:25Lindsay Graham?

  It's November 1982, inside the Utah headquarters of Thiocol, the company responsible for manufacturing the rocket boosters for NASA's space shuttle program. NASA project manager Larry Malloy squeezes his bulky frame past the glass door of a large conference room that's already full of Thiocol managers and engineers. Malloy is 48 years old and built like an NFL linebacker. He can be charming, but also intimidating, and in his 20-plus years at NASA, he's developed a reputation for getting things done. Now he's been tasked with managing the shuttle's solid rocket booster program, so he's trying to get up to speed quickly. Malloy is especially interested in the O-rings that sit on the joints between the various sections of the boosters.

• 1:08Lindsay Graham?

  While preparing for this visit, he came across a report indicating that one of the O-rings recovered from the last shuttle launch showed significant signs of burn damage. While the O-rings are a relatively simple component, they are critically important. If they were to fail during launch, burning fuel could leak from the booster and set off an explosion that could destroy the entire shuttle. So Malloy is eager to learn exactly how and why the burn damage occurred, and whether this is the kind of problem that could delay the next launch of the space shuttle Columbia, which is only just days away. Malloy takes a seat at the table and pulls a yellow legal pad from his briefcase. He begins scribbling down notes as Thiocol's manager in charge of the boosters kicks off the meeting.

• 1:54Lindsay Graham?

  The manager begins with a history of the booster's development over the past decade. But as he's wrapping up, Malloy realizes he hasn't said anything about the O-rings. So Malloy speaks up. Well, thank you. I appreciate the background, but there's something you didn't mention. What can you tell me about the O-rings? On my flight over, I read a report about some singeing found in the post-launch inspection. Oh, yeah, my apologies. I wasn't trying to be evasive. I just assumed you didn't want to get too in the weeds here on our first meeting. Yes, we did find some heat damage on one of the O-rings, but we consider it an anomaly. How sure can you be of that? Well, we've had four shuttle launches so far. Each launch has two boosters, and each booster has multiple O-rings. So at this point, there's probably been about 100 O-rings used in the launches, and only

• 2:38Lindsay Graham?

  one has shown that level of damage. All right, so 1%. But let's say hypothetically, on the next launch, we have another one of these anomalous O-rings. But this time, it burns through completely. What would happen then? Well, each joint is fitted with two O-rings as a redundancy, so in your hypothetical scenario, the second O-ring would be there to do the job. And what if that second O-ring also experiences one of these anomalous burns? Well, in theory, there could be an explosion, but let's say, in the worst-case scenario, one in every 100 O-rings fails completely, then the odds of two of them being on the same joint during the same launch are astronomical. Maybe 1 in 10,000. Yeah, but 1 in 10,000 isn't zero. We need some reassurances that you're working on a solution here.

• 3:23Lindsay Graham?

  Well, of course, absolutely. We're studying the issue, and we're looking for ways to improve the design, and we're confident we'll get this O-ring thing resolved. The way I see it, with all the complex, novel technology on the shuttle, the last thing you need to worry about are these simple rubber gaskets. Okay, good. Well, I couldn't agree more. Let's move on.

• 3:42Lindsay Graham?

  As the Thiacal manager turns to the next item on the meeting agenda, Malloy feels satisfied with what he's heard about the O-rings, and he feels no need to raise the issue with his superiors at NASA. If Thiacal is willing to sign off on the launch, then that's good enough for him. Malloy knows that NASA is under intense pressure from the White House and Congress to increase the frequency of shuttle launches, so he certainly doesn't want to be the man responsible for any delays.

• 4:12Speaker 01

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• 4:44Speaker 02

  I'm Gemma Whelan, and in the new season of The Spy Who, we tell the story of the original femme fatale, The Spy Who Was Mata Hari. A famous dancer turned World War I secret agent, accused of seducing Allied officers to uncover their plans. But was she a temptress or a scapegoat for French failures? Follow The Spy Who now, wherever you listen to podcasts. You can also listen to the full season of The Spy Who Was Mata Hari, early and at free on Audible.

• 5:22Lindsay Graham?

  From Wondery, I'm Lindsay Graham, and this is American Scandal.

• 5:46Lindsay Graham?

  In the 1960s, NASA dazzled the world with its engineering achievements, accomplishing things that once seemed impossible and capturing the imagination of the public. But even before Neil Armstrong stepped foot on the moon, NASA's leadership knew the tides were going to turn against them. Their Apollo program was costing the country a fortune. And with the war in Vietnam escalating and the country headed for a recession, sooner or later, they knew they were going to have to cut costs. So instead of building customized, single-use rockets and spacecraft like they had been, NASA's engineers started designing space shuttles that could be flown over and over again, like a commercial airplane. And they were large enough to accommodate cargo missions paid for by the military and private industry.

• 6:30Lindsay Graham?

  So when the budget cuts inevitably came, NASA would be ready. But in order to handle commercial and military cargo and stick to an aggressive launch schedule, NASA was forced to compromise on the design of their shuttles in critical ways. And in 1981, soon after the maiden voyage of the first shuttle Columbia, an issue emerged with its rocket boosters. Engineers at NASA contractor Morton Thiokol began to find damage in the boosters O-rings, thin gaskets made of synthetic rubber, which were supposed to be sufficiently heat-resistant to prevent fuel leaks in the seams of the boosters. But the damage they found suggested that the O-rings could fail during launch. A small group of Thiokol engineers tried to raise the alarm,

• 7:13Lindsay Graham?

  but officials at NASA were desperate to keep shuttle launches on schedule, and executives at Thiokol were determined to meet their demands. So the launches continued, and the space shuttle program inched closer to disaster. This is episode 2, Acceptable Risk.

• 7:31Lindsay Graham?

  It's March 2nd, 1984, in Huntsville, Alabama. Al McDonald is sitting in a private jet staring out the window as it touches down at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center. McDonald is an engineering manager at Morton Thiokol, and he's here on a mission. He and his colleagues are meeting with Bill Lucas, director of the Marshall Space Flight Center, to reassure him that the engineering issues on Thiokol's solid rocket boosters are being addressed. In the 18 months since Thiokol's engineers first found a damaged O-ring in one of their rocket boosters, there has been a growing tension between the company and NASA. Some recent launches have continued to produce burned O-rings, and the linings on a handful of the booster's exhaust nozzles have burned right through in flight as well.

• 8:15Lindsay Graham?

  Although these problems have yet to cause any catastrophic failures, NASA is growing impatient with Thiokol's inability to fix them. And there has been talk about the agency opening up their rocket booster contracts to other bidders, jeopardizing Thiokol's business with its most important client. So when his plane comes to a stop, McDonald takes a deep breath, grabs his briefcase, and heads for the exit, following behind two of his company's executives. Stepping out into the humid southern air, he mentally prepares for a grilling from Lucas. But before McDonald's feet have even hit the tarmac, he sees another Thiokol employee sprinting toward the jet and shouting. Between gasping breaths, the employee informs him that there's just been an explosion and

• 8:57Lindsay Graham?

  fire at Thiokol's manufacturing facility back in Utah, the same one that makes the solid rocket boosters. And the early word is there may be multiple fatalities. McDonald is stunned by the news and horrified that workers in his plant, people he knows, may have been killed. But he's also worried about walking into this meeting and trying to reassure NASA about the safety of Thiokol's rockets just minutes after an explosion at his own facility. So McDonald looks to his bosses for what to do next, suggesting perhaps they should just head back to Utah. But the executives remind him that the fate of the company may be riding on this meeting, so they decide to move forward with it. As they head into the Flight Center building, McDonald tries to figure out how he's going to spin this to Lucas.

• 9:39Lindsay Graham?

  But by the time they've taken their seats across from Lucas, they get an update on the explosion. It turns out that several workers suffered injuries, but thankfully, no one was killed. Lucas expresses relief, but it's clear he's hardly reassured. He wants to know how NASA is supposed to trust Thiokol to keep their astronauts safe when they can't even protect their own employees. He also wants to know how this incident will affect future shuttle launches. He reminds McDonald and his colleagues that NASA is under tremendous pressure to stay on schedule, and the next launch is just weeks away. McDonald tries to reassure Lucas that they have enough boosters already built for the immediate future, and they'll do everything they can to get the plant back up and running as quickly as possible.

• 10:23Lindsay Graham?

  But Lucas seems unconvinced. But just as McDonald feels himself withering under Lucas's pointed questions, the other Thiokol executives interrupt, cutting the meeting short, explaining to Lucas that they should get back to Utah to survey the damage for themselves as soon as possible, and they'll call Lucas with updates that very evening. But as McDonald rises from his seat and shakes Lucas's hand, he wonders if Thiokol is about to lose its most important client.

• 10:52Lindsay Graham?

  While Morton Thiokol rebuilds its damaged Utah plant, the company is able to transfer its rocket booster production to another facility, so that the plant explosion causes no delays to the space shuttle launch schedule. There are also no delays as a result of the burnt O-rings. NASA deems any safety concerns regarding the O-rings as an acceptable risk. But by the summer of 1984, the American public's enthusiasm for space travel has once again begun to wane. It's been more than three years since the first shuttle launch, and NASA has launched ten more shuttles since then. It's a tremendous feat, but the public has come to see these missions as routine, even boring, which presents a new problem for NASA. The agency knows their funding ultimately relies on public support,

• 11:37Lindsay Graham?

  so they continuously look for new ways to capture the imagination of the average American. And the idea they keep coming back to is sending a civilian into space. They consider all types of people, including journalists like Walter Cronkite and even the musician John Denver. But after much deliberation, it's decided that the first civilian in space should be someone who can inspire America's children: a schoolteacher. When the idea is presented to President Ronald Reagan in July of 1984, he seizes on it immediately. With a presidential election just four months away, Reagan is eager to stamp his name on what's sure to be a popular initiative. So in August, he announces the Teacher in Space Program while visiting a junior high school in Washington. And over the next few months,

• 12:22Lindsay Graham?

  thousands of teachers submit applications to NASA. It seems like everyone who works in education is caught up in the excitement, including a 36-year-old New Hampshire high school teacher named Krista McCauleth. That November, McCauleth is attending a conference for social studies teachers at the Hilton Hotel in Washington, DC. She's dashing between meeting rooms with her friend and fellow teacher Eileen O'Hara, trying to make it in time for a talk on women's history. McCauleth teaches a class titled "The American Woman", so this is a session she doesn't want to miss.

• 12:55Lindsay Graham?

  But as they approach the meeting room, a booth about NASA's new teacher in space program catches McAuliffe's eye. She grabs O'Hara's hand. Eileen, hold on. I want to check this out. Oh yeah, I saw something on the news about this. So great they're sending a teacher first. Can you imagine? One of us up there in orbit? That'd be an adventure. McAuliffe grabs a brochure showing astronauts smiling as they float in zero-gravity inside a shuttle. I wonder what sort of teacher they're looking for. Probably physics or math, I bet. Why not social studies, Krista? You should apply. No, the odds are one in a million. No, but I'm serious. I bet even just applying would be an inspiration to your students. Well, that's a good point. And NASA would be lucky to have you. You're the smartest, hardest-working teacher I know. And just think, you'd be a real celebrity.

• 13:40Lindsay Graham?

  You'd probably get to hang out with Neil Armstrong, go to the White House. Pfft, I don't care about any of that stuff, but it would be great for my students. I tell them every day, they can accomplish anything they put their mind to. And this would set a pretty good example. So? So what? So take an application. Okay, I'll take an application. But I'm grabbing enough for you and the other teachers too. We'll do it all together.

• 14:05Lindsay Graham?

  McAuliffe grabs a stack of applications and stuffs them into her purse. And as she hurries to the talk on women's history, those images of smiling astronauts continue to run through her mind.

• 14:19Lindsay Graham?

  As Krista McAuliffe completes her application process, the pace of shuttle launches continues to accelerate. Over the next four months, there are three more launches, one by Challenger and two by Discovery, the newest shuttle in the fleet. And when Discovery's rocket boosters are recovered from the Atlantic Ocean in January of 1985, one of Thia Call's engineers is especially eager to see how they performed. Roger Bojolay has been working in the Solid Rocket Booster Division for several years, and he's been trying to make continuous improvements to the safety of their design. But lately, he's been feeling like his superiors are brushing off more and more of his concerns, especially around the reliability of the O-rings. So when he observes the condition of the boosters recovered from the space shuttle Discovery,

• 15:03Lindsay Graham?

  Bojolay feels he has to act. He requests an emergency meeting with NASA. And the very next day, Bojolay finds himself seated at the head of a large conference table at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville. He's joined by three dozen NASA engineers and managers packed into the room to hear what he's found. So as Beaujolais looks around, he feels a knot in his stomach, knowing they're not going to like what he has to say. The feeling isn't entirely unusual for Beaujolais. He has a reputation for being overly cautious when it comes to safety issues, and sometimes he lets his emotions get the best of him. But Beaujolais knows the O-rings better than anybody, and he can't sugarcoat what he's seen. Beaujolais begins the meeting by holding

• 15:44Lindsay Graham?

  up several large, clear, plastic bags. Inside the bags are the O-rings he stripped from Discovery's boosters during yesterday's inspection. And as NASA engineers pass these bags around the room, Beaujolais reads from his notes outlining what he found. He explains that a properly functioning O-ring should be covered in the yellow grease that was applied between the primary and backup O-rings on the booster's joint before launch. But as everyone in the room can see, the grease is now dark black, and the O-rings are covered in soot. Not only that, portions of two O-rings have been completely incinerated. Beaujolais explains that in one joint in particular, flames leaking from the booster had burned through both the primary and backup O-rings. This means that for the first time, a flame had reached through

• 16:29Lindsay Graham?

  the seal to the outer casing of the booster during launch. If this flame had spread much farther, it could have ruptured the shuttle's larger central fuel tank during liftoff, causing the entire vehicle to explode. Beaujolais looks solemnly around the table, trying to gauge if the gravity of the situation is sinking in. He'd like to tell the group that Discovery's astronauts are lucky to be alive, but he knows how a statement like that would be received, so he decides to bite his tongue. Still, there's another opinion that Beaujolais knows he can't hold back, so he takes a deep breath and tells the room they're probably not going to want to hear what he has to say next. In Beaujolais's expert opinion, the O-rings were damaged by low temperatures.

• 17:12Lindsay Graham?

  Two days before launch, Florida had experienced a record-breaking cold front, with temperatures dropping as low as 18 degrees Fahrenheit. The shuttle and its solid rocket boosters had already been positioned on the launch pad at the time of the deep freeze. So those low temperatures could have easily cracked the synthetic rubber of the O-rings or compromised the flame-retardant substance used to seal them. The room falls silent. And then, after what feels like an eternity, Beaujolais hears a single voice speak up from the corner of the room. A NASA official tells Beaujolais that he's right: Nobody wanted to hear that.

• 17:51Speaker 03

  Hi, I'm Kenya Paris.

• 17:52Speaker 04

  And I'm Malcolm Gladwell. We're back for season two of our Audible original podcast, The Unusual Suspects.

• 17:58Speaker 03

  We'll sit down with extraordinary guests from the worlds of art, film, literature, comedy, and wellness to hear from their unexpected stories of success.

• 18:06Speaker 04

  And who do we have this season? Well, we'll talk with Grammy-winning artist Anderson Paak, athlete Rich Roll, portrait artist Amy Sherald, Oscar-winning director Ron Howard, legendary writer David Sedaris, and many more. These conversations are more intimate than last season, wouldn't you say?

• 18:22Speaker 03

  I would. Listen to season one of The Unusual Suspects wherever you get your podcasts, and sign up for a free trial Audible to listen to season two in the Audible app or by subscribing to Apple Podcasts.

• 18:39Speaker 05

  You stepped out for your morning jog, except it's not your usual morning jog. You started listening to an epic sci-fi book on Audible. Thirty chapters later, you've accidentally run a half marathon. You've lost track of how far you've run, somewhere just past the city limits. You can't stop. You have to find out what happens next. Then it's over. The universe seems bigger. You feel different. You feel like you have no idea where you are. Audible: Stories That Speak to You.

• 19:20Lindsay Graham?

  In February 1985, Morton Thyacall engineer Roger Bojolay starts gathering scientific evidence to prove his theory that cold temperatures could have damaged the O-rings on the Space Shuttle Discovery. At Thyacall's headquarters in Utah, Bojolay and his supervisor Al McDonald collect data from all of the previous rocket booster tests and shuttle launches. They also run new lab tests on O-rings, exposing them to a variety of temperatures. These tests shows that in temperatures under 75 degrees, the soft rubber rings become hardened and take longer to expand into the gaps in the booster's joints. And when temperature falls below 50 degrees, the O-rings never fully expand at all. For Bojolay, this is all the proof he needs that colder weather is what is causing

• 20:05Lindsay Graham?

  the O-rings to fail. But the upper management at Thyacall and NASA decide that Bojolay's data is inconclusive. And when it comes time for the next launch in April of 1985, Thyacall's official risk analysis report to NASA states that the O-rings' performance is acceptable. With that reassurance, NASA moves forward. Its next three launches go off without a hitch. But then, in a July 1985 launch, the shuttle Challenger experiences a different issue, one that nearly ends in catastrophe. Just as the Challenger is about to leave Earth's atmosphere, one of its three engines shuts down. The astronauts are barely able to get their crippled shuttle into orbit, avoiding an extremely dangerous emergency landing.

• 20:50Lindsay Graham?

  The Challenger returns safely to Earth a few days later, but this incident leaves the astronauts and mission control workers shaken. Fortunately for NASA, a bigger space-related news story is distracting the public. That same month, NASA selects the first participant for its Teacher in Space program. In a televised ceremony at the White House, Vice President George Bush announces that from a pool of more than 11,000 applicants, NASA has chosen New Hampshire high school teacher Krista McAuliffe. Overnight, McAuliffe is famous. She receives hundreds of calls from reporters desperate to interview her and movie producers angling for the rights to her life story. It's an overwhelming experience for a humble social studies teacher and mother of two.

• 21:34Lindsay Graham?

  McAuliffe applied to the program out of a sincere desire to inspire her students. Becoming famous was the farthest thing from her mind. But just weeks after the announcement, she finds herself getting the star treatment on one of America's most popular talk shows.

• 21:53Lindsay Graham?

  On July 31, 1985, in Burbank, California, McAuliffe walks out from behind The Tonight Show's iconic rainbow curtain and takes a seat opposite host Johnny Carson. For McAuliffe, looking out at the cameras and the studio audience is a surreal experience. But she reminds herself that this is about more than just her. She's here to represent NASA and the teaching profession. So she smiles graciously and tries to keep her cool as Johnny Carson asks his first question. Now, you've done so many news conferences and so many TV shows from being a school teacher. By the way, what classes do you teach? I teach economics and law and a course I developed called The American Woman, which explores social history. I also teach American history to 11th and 12th graders.

• 22:37Lindsay Graham?

  Now, all of a sudden, you're a national personage. You're in the news all the time. Has it been more than you're able to handle? Well, right now, it's a lot of fun, and I'm enjoying doing this. One of the things that's been nice, because I don't have school this summer, is that this is the only way I can get the message across to my students. I don't have a chance to get into the classroom right now. Oh, boy, are you gonna get a welcome when you come back this fall. Oh, I'm sure. How'd this all come about? I guess, and you would know better than I, the reason they want this is so somebody could come back and report, not in a technical or engineering sense, but what a regular person would feel like up there. Is that the idea? Well, NASA has a space participant program. I'm in the first category, which is teachers, but there will be other ones.

• 23:19Lindsay Graham?

  They want to give people ownership to show that the space program belongs to everybody. And the other thing was to try and find somebody who would be a very good communicator, with impact on as many people as possible. And what better person than a teacher?

• 23:33Lindsay Graham?

  I assume someone would also have to be in good health, strenuous physical training. You have to be in good shape, don't you? In the first astronaut programs, people did have to be because they experienced so many G-forces when taking off. But for a space participant, it's different. With these new shuttles, the demands are much less today. And when is this scheduled for? Do they have a target date for you to, as they say, blast off? The target date is January 22nd. But with the missions being bumped a bit because of the problems that they've had, I assume it's more like February. Are you in any way frightened by something like that? I mean, it's a normal question because just the other day, it was a, they kind of had a frightening thing where one of the engines went out. McAuliffe hesitates before answering, knowing she'll have to choose her words carefully.

• 24:15Lindsay Graham?

  Um, I, I haven't really thought of it in those terms because I see the shuttle program as very safe. Who was it that once said? Deke Slaton, I think. I, I may be giving credit to the wrong astronaut. They asked him, "How do you feel when you're up there in the capsule?" And he says, "It's a strange feeling when you realize every part on this capsule was made by the lowest bidder." McAuliffe laughs along with the audience, relieved to have a moment of levity. But as the interview continues, Carson's words stick with her. And the more she thinks about the joke, the less funny it seems. In September of 1985, six weeks after her appearance on The Tonight Show, Krista McAuliffe packs her bags and travels to Houston to begin her training.

• 24:59Lindsay Graham?

  As the first civilian in space, her training is much shorter and less rigorous than the other astronauts. So she spends much of her time in Houston preparing for the lessons she plans to broadcast live to students while in orbit. Some of the veteran astronauts, including those who will be assigned to her flight on the Challenger, are dismissive of McAuliffe. They see the teacher in space program as a publicity stunt, and they know that in an emergency, McAuliffe would be virtually no help to them. But over time, McAuliffe begins to win them over. Judy Resnick, the only other woman on the Challenger crew, even helps McAuliffe learn the scientific principles she'll need for her teaching lessons. But not every part of Challenger's preparations is going smoothly. At Morton Thiokol, an engineer named Bob Ebling is growing increasingly worried that

• 25:44Lindsay Graham?

  the task force assigned to fix the O-ring issue is not getting the attention it needs. Now in his late 50s, Ebling has been with Thiokol for 25 years, and during that time, he's analyzed the performance of countless booster rockets. Out on the testing range, he's witnessed what happens when a rocket's engine experience is a leak. He knows that even the tiniest leak can cause a massive explosion, and he's haunted by what could happen if a leak occurred during a shuttle launch, and by the idea that the astronauts aboard could be sent to their deaths by a booster that he was responsible for. So in October of 1985, Ebling writes a memo to Thiokol's senior managers outlining his concerns. The memo begins with the word "HELP" in all capital letters.

• 26:29Lindsay Graham?

  Ebling then lays out in detail how the task force is being hampered by corporate bureaucracy, and how Thiokol employees in the manufacturing and procurement departments are standing in the way of making the necessary changes. But Ebling's memo doesn't do much. Both Thiokol and NASA are sticking to their promise to dramatically increase the frequency of shuttle missions. And with each passing launch, Ebling grows more uneasy. He knows from his colleague Roger Bojolay that cold temperatures are one of the biggest points of concern around the O-rings. Winter is fast approaching. So finally, one day in late autumn, Ebling reaches his breaking point. He's sitting in his office at Thiokol's Utah headquarters, poring over a report on the

• 27:10Lindsay Graham?

  latest O-ring tests, when his mind flashes back to a recent TV news story about the teacher-turned-astronaut Krista McAuliffe. He remembers the images of McAuliffe teaching in her classroom and sitting at home with her husband and young children. He can't bear to think that he might be responsible for killing her. So he decides he needs to do something, anything, to prevent that from happening. Ebling rises from his desk, grabs a stack of papers, and heads into the hallway. Overcome by emotions, he begins storming up and down the corridor, arms flailing and yelling at his colleagues that they need to shut down the rocket production immediately. Ebling stops in the doorway of the rocket division's main conference room, where he finds some of his coworkers. He pleads with them to listen,

• 27:53Lindsay Graham?

  warning that astronauts are going to be killed and that blood will be on their hands. He shouts that they need to lock the gates of the booster production facility and stop sending their faulty rockets to NASA. But Ebling's colleagues barely raise their heads in his direction. This may be Ebling's most dramatic tirade, but it's not the first. And the more he rants about O-rings, the less attention they pay him. So one of the managers calmly tells Ebling to quit being dramatic and go back to his office. But before he leaves, Ebling strides into the conference room, slams down the stack of papers he was holding onto the table. He tells his fellow engineers to look for themselves, because all the data is there, proving that the O-rings pose an unacceptable risk.

• 28:38Speaker 06

  Journalist Daphne Caruana Galizia spent her life exposing powerful people. Then, in 2017, she was killed in a car bombing. I'm Stephen Gray, and for the past nine years, I've been trying to find out who wanted her dead. That search took me to Malta through secret companies, organized crime, and eventually to one of the island's richest and most powerful men. Now, after years of waiting, his trial has finally happened. But when the verdict came in, the case took a turn that almost no one had expected. In a brand-new update to the multi-award-winning podcast Who Killed Daphne? I'm returning to Malta to find out how we got there and where the search for the truth goes next.

• 29:20Speaker 06

  Listen to the new episode of Who Killed Daphne wherever you get your podcasts, and you can hear the full six-part investigation from the beginning, ad-free with Audible. Join Audible today by downloading the Audible app and by subscribing on Apple Podcasts.

• 29:38Speaker 07

  There are books that change how you see the world, and there are books that change how you see yourself. In a new podcast series, A Great Book with Barack Obama, President Obama sits down with a series of surprising and sharp guests to explore six books that have shaped his life and perspective on the world. From Song of Solomon and The Fire Next Time, to All the Pretty Horses and Gilead, the president is joined by guests like Tom Hanks and Ta-Nehisi Coates to reflect on how these timeless stories shaped his thinking on everything from fatherhood to leadership, and discover together what they tell us about the world we live in and the world we want to create.

• 30:22Speaker 07

  Audible subscribers can listen to all episodes of A Great Book with Barack Obama ad-free right now, plus access each audiobook discussed in the series. Download the Audible app today.

• 30:49Lindsay Graham?

  By the end of 1985, there is a growing sense of panic among the engineers on Morton Thiacall's O-Ring Task Force. And as they scramble to redesign the joints of their solid rocket boosters, they make repeated appeals to NASA to take the O-Ring issues more seriously. But NASA has no intention of slowing down. As 1985 comes to a close, they're preparing for their most ambitious launch schedule yet, aiming to carry out 15 flights over the next 12 months, ferrying a wide variety of payloads into orbit, including top-secret military equipment and the revolutionary Hubble Space Telescope. They also plan to build on the excitement of their teacher and space program by sending up more civilians. But NASA's ambitions run headfirst into a series of exasperating delays.

• 31:34Lindsay Graham?

  A planned launch of the newly upgraded Shuttle Columbia in December of 1985 is pushed half a dozen times due to poor weather and various technical failures, including a malfunction of the steering system in one of Thiaa'call's solid rocket boosters. These delays leave NASA management increasingly frustrated and more desperate than ever to get back on schedule. But as the ground crews race to make up for lost time, they're getting burned out. Some have worked 12-hour days, 40 days in a row, without a break. And to keep up with management's demanding schedule, they begin skipping hundreds of routine maintenance tasks. But the technical problems and delays are conquered, and Columbia finally launches on January 12, 1986.

• 32:17Lindsay Graham?

  The next event on the schedule is the eagerly anticipated launch of the Space Shuttle Challenger on the mission that will carry teacher Krista McAuliffe into space. But after all the delays to Columbia, NASA is left with just two weeks before Challenger is scheduled to lift off. Barring any further postponements, it will be the fastest turnaround time between launches in the shuttle program's history, a record NASA is eager to set. And on January 24, less than 48 hours before the scheduled launch of Challenger, the astronauts and their families gather at a quaint seaside cottage just down the beach from the launchpad in Cape Canaveral, Florida. This is their last chance to enjoy a little time together before the astronauts are quarantined in preparation for their journey into space.

• 32:59Lindsay Graham?

  The cottage retreat has become part of a pre-launch tradition at NASA, and for June Scobie, it's a welcome event. She's the wife of Challenger's commander, Dick Scobie, and has grown close to the other families over the past few months. And as the other astronauts and their spouses arrive, she happily volunteers to take photos of the couples lounging together on the living room's burnt orange furniture. There's pilot Michael Smith, mission specialists Ellison Onizuka, Ron McNair, and Judy Resnick, payload specialist Greg Jarvis, and teacher Krista McAuliffe. Then Scobie hands off the camera and poses for a photo with her husband Dick, wrapping her arm over his shoulder and pulling him tight. As the cottage fills with the astronauts' spouses, parents, and children, the gathering becomes like a full-on family reunion.

• 33:44Lindsay Graham?

  June enjoys barbecued ribs and potato salad, and laughs as the astronauts share war stories from their training. When the Scobies finish eating, Dick suggests that the two of them go for a walk on the beach. June likes the sound of that, knowing this will be the last time she gets to spend alone with her husband before the launch. But when she steps out on the deck, she's struck by how cold it is, far different from the warm Florida weather she's been expecting. So she heads inside to grab a coat before heading down the beach with Dick. June then takes her husband's hand as they walk along the beach, listening to the waves of the Atlantic crash into the sand, and chatting about plans for the family's future. This is set to be Dick's final flight as an astronaut, and they've recently become grandparents for the first time. And as they continue further down the beach,

• 34:28Lindsay Graham?

  the Challenger itself comes into sight in the distance, waiting on the launch pad. Dick points toward the shuttle, and remarks that it's going to be his new home for a while. Then June feels her husband's hand on her waist, and he stops walking and turns her toward him. She can see the sun setting just behind his shoulders as he stands with his back to the ocean. He begins singing to June, and she smiles as she listens to the lyrics, "For you are beautiful, and I have loved you dearly." She recognizes the old folk song, "The Last Farewell." But as Dick gets to the chorus, the lyrics become darker. "I have no fear of death, it brings no sorrow, but how bitter will be this last farewell?" June wonders why her husband chose this particular song.

• 35:10Lindsay Graham?

  Perhaps he feels something is different about this final mission that he hasn't shared with her. Maybe with all the recent delays and the mad rush to get Challenger off the ground, Dick is a little more worried about the launch than he's letting on. But when Dick finishes the song, the sun is fully set, and they head back toward the cottage. June shivers in the cold, considering asking her husband if the song had any deeper meaning. But it was such a sweet, romantic moment, she doesn't want to spoil it. So she walks back to the cottage silently, hand in hand with Dick, keeping her worries to herself.

• 35:46Lindsay Graham?

  Challenger's launch is scheduled for Sunday, January 26th, but it gets delayed following a weather forecast that calls for a high probability of thunderstorms during the launch window. In a silver lining, though, the delay allows the astronauts and NASA crew to watch the Super Bowl. The launch is rescheduled for Monday, but at 8:30 a.m. that morning, NASA's Quality Insurance Inspector Johnny Corlou encounters another problem. Corlou is 195 feet up on the launch tower that stands next to Challenger. He's huddled with a handful of other crew in what's known as the White Room, a small area just outside the hatch where the astronauts enter the shuttle. Wearing a white NASA jumpsuit and holding a clipboard, he's working his way through a checklist, making final preparations for launch.

• 36:29Lindsay Graham?

  The seven astronauts have just stepped into the shuttle, and the hatch door has been sealed behind them. The scheduled launch time is just one hour away at 9:30 a.m. But the string of recent delays and the quick turnaround time between launches have left Corlou as exasperated and burned out as anyone else at NASA. And as an added concern, the temperature has dropped to 40 degrees this morning. Corlou blows on his hands to keep them warm as he works. He can't wait to finally get Challenger off the ground. But as he checks the instrument panel on the wall of the White Room, he spots the problem. It looks like the hatch that just closed behind the astronauts has not fully locked. Corlou and his crew eventually determine that it's an issue with the sensors, and when they finally get the sensors fixed, they're almost ready to launch.

• 37:14Lindsay Graham?

  But now there's another problem. The hatch door has a temporary handle that must be removed before launch. Ordinarily, this is one of the simplest parts of the pre-launch procedure, but when his men try to unscrew the handle, they find that one of the bolts can't be removed. It seems to have been stripped and just spins in its socket. Corlou radios down to the ground, asking for a power drill to remove the bolt, but he's told none are available, and they'll have to have one driven in. It's now 10:30 a.m., and they're an hour behind schedule. But when the power drill finally arrives, Corlou is furious to see that its battery is dead. He sends for a fresh battery, but those don't work either. So Corlou calls for a new drill altogether, and thankfully, this one powers up.

• 37:59Lindsay Graham?

  But the bolt still just spins in place. They're now nearly two hours behind schedule, and with the launch window rapidly closing, Korlu is at his wit's end. He picks up the phone that connects to the engineers in charge of the launch. Hey, look, we're not getting any traction on this bolt. We've got a hacksaw up here, and I'm requesting permission to just saw through the thing. Korlu waits to get approval, then hangs up the phone and turns to a member of his crew. Alright, we're just gonna cut it. Korlu waits as his men take turns sawing through the thick steel bolt. But just as the bolt is finally removed, he gets more bad news. The launch has been cancelled because the winds have grown too strong. Exhausted and defeated, Korlu opens the hatch to let the astronauts out. The last one out is Commander Dick Scobie.

• 38:44Lindsay Graham?

  Korlu helps him remove his safety harness. Ah, Dick, I'm awful sorry about this. Hate to scrub another launch after leaving you guys sitting in there for hours. Hey, Johnny, don't worry about it. These things happen. I know, I just wish it wasn't something as silly as a bolt on the door handle. My team's gonna get an earful. Well, we'll just try again tomorrow. Should be plenty of time for you fellows to find some new bolts. Yeah, that's the thing, though. I think we missed our best window to launch for the next few days. It's already near freezing, and there's a cold front coming in. I say it's gonna drop into the low twenties tonight. Well, we'll just cross that bridge when we get to it. But thankfully, it's not our cold, right? NASA pays the rocket scientists in Huntsville to worry about that. Right now, I'm just thinking about getting back inside and wrapping my hands around a hot mug of coffee.

• 39:27Lindsay Graham?

  Korlu watches the astronauts take the elevator to the bottom of the tower, where a silver minibus nicknamed the Astrovan is waiting to take them back to their quarters. He appreciates Scobie's good-natured optimism. But Korlu is certain the mission will be delayed further. He can't imagine NASA will approve a launch for tomorrow when the temperature is set to drop below freezing.

• 39:51Lindsay Graham?

  From Wondery, this is episode two of "The Challenger Disaster" from American Scandal. In our next episode, debate erupts within NASA and Morton Thiacall about whether to launch in frigid temperatures, leading to a showdown between the engineers and management. But the teacher-in-space mission of the Space Shuttle Challenger will finally lift off.

• 40:14Lindsay Graham?

  American Scandal is only possible because of listeners like you, so thank you. And don't miss an episode. Be sure to follow American Scandal on Audible or wherever you get your podcasts. And Audible subscribers can binge new seasons of American Scandal early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts. And to find out more about me, including my other podcasts, my live show, the history tours I'm arranging, and all sorts of other things, go to historyishuman.com. That's historyishuman.com.

• 40:48Lindsay Graham?

  If you'd like to learn more about this story, we recommend the books Challenger by Adam Higginbotham, The Burning Blue by Kevin Cook, and the Netflix docu-series Challenger: The Final Flight. This episode contains reenactments and dramatized details. And while in most cases we can't know exactly what was said, all our dramatizations are based on historical research. American Scandal is hosted, edited, and executive produced by me, Lindsay Graham for Airship. Audio editing by Christian Paraga. Sound design by Gabriel Gould. Music by Lindsey Graham. This episode is written by Corey Metcalf. Edited by Emma Courtland. Fact-checking by Alyssa Jung Perry. Produced by John Reed. Managing producer is Olivia Fonte. Senior producers are Andy Beckerman and Andy Herman. Development by Stephanie Jens. And executive

• 41:30Lindsay Graham?

  producers are Jenny Lauer Beckman, Marshall Louis, and Aaron O'Flaherty for Wondery.

• 41:42Lindsay Graham?

  Hey, I'm Cassie DePecce, the host of Against the Odds from Audible Originals. In each episode, we share thrilling true stories of survival, putting you in the shoes of the people who lived to tell the tale. In our latest series, we track the story of Hugh Glass, the real-life revenant that inspired the 2015 film starring Leonardo DiCaprio. In 1823, Glass was brutally mauled by a grizzly bear in present-day South Dakota and left for dead. His survival depended on trekking through 350 miles of wilderness alone with grave injuries. But he was driven by his thirst for revenge. Follow Against the Odds wherever you get your podcasts. Audible subscribers can binge all episodes of Against the Odds early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts.