Pod Insights American History Tellers The Progressive Era | Power to the People | 1 About this episode In the late 1890s, Theodore Roosevelt emerged as a hero of the Spanish-American War and embarked on a meteoric rise through the political ranks. His bold leadership and restless energy would define a new era of Progressive change.
At the end of the 19th century, the United States had become one of the world’s great industrial powers. But prosperity hid the truth of a society rife with corruption and inequality. In response, a diverse group of reformers resolved to harness the power of government to build a better society. Journalists, activists, lawyers, and politicians joined Roosevelt to fight for safer workplaces, consumer protections, and corporate regulations. They were known as “Progressives.”
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0:00 Lindsay Graham? Audible subscribers can binge new seasons of American History Tellers early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts.
0:24 Lindsay Graham? Imagine it's 2 o'clock in the morning in February 1896, in New York City's Lower East Side. You wipe raindrops from your spectacles, trying to ignore the bone-chilling cold. You're a police reporter for the New York Evening Sun, and you're on one of your late-night outings with your new friend Theodore Roosevelt, the city police commissioner. But tonight, you have something important you want to bring up with him. You step into the dim glow of the green lights of the Church Street Police Lodging House, ready to delve into your pitch. These dingy police station basements are the only shelters available to the homeless. I think it's long past time we shut them down and open up real shelters, ones with beds and showers, but almost anything's better than what they've got. You wait till you
1:06 Lindsay Graham? see for yourself. Okay, then, lead the way. Roosevelt is new on the job and has never been to a police lodging house. All the other city officials have turned a blind eye to this misery, but you're hoping to change that. Roosevelt opens the door for you, then follows you inside. You nod at a familiar-looking sergeant, then lead Roosevelt toward the narrow set of stairs to the basement. You know, I stayed here myself. Twenty-five years ago, when I first came to this city, I was an immigrant with nowhere else to go. What was it like? Not good. A tramp robbed me, took my last token of home, a small gold locket containing a lock in my mother's hair. When I told the police officer on duty, though, he just threw me out.
1:50 Lindsay Graham? But I had my dog with me and I thought that would have been enough, but he started barking like mad in the street and a doorman snatched him up and beat him to death against the stone front steps of his building. That's barbaric. No man deserves to be treated like that. As you walk into the light of the damp, windowless cellar, you register the anger on Roosevelt's face. You look around and realize the room is just as you remember it. Three men are stretched out on dirty wooden planks. You point to the young man closest to you, tossing and turning in his sleep. You know, I was just like him. But God, he's just a kid. And a sick one by the looks of him. It wouldn't be unusual, a typhus epidemic spread through the lodging houses a few years back. Roosevelt shakes his head and then clenches his fists.
2:34 Lindsay Graham? I will smash them tomorrow. Smash them? What do you mean? Well, I'm gonna get rid of the police shelters for good. Replace them with proper housing. Just like that? It's been thirty years and no police commissioner has managed to shut them down. Ah, but I am not just any police commissioner. You know how hard it is to make a change in this city. But there's a fierce glint in Roosevelt's eyes that makes you believe him. A resolve that could transform the lives of thousands of New Yorkers.
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4:14 Lindsay Graham? From Wondery, I'm Lindsay Graham, and this is American History Tellers: Our History, Your Story.
4:36 Lindsay Graham? On our show, we take you to the events, the times, and the people that shaped America and Americans, our values, our struggles, and our dreams. We'll put you in the shoes of everyday people as history was being made, and we'll show you how the events of the times affected them, their families, and affects you now. In 1896, reporter Jacob Rees befriended New York City Police Commissioner Theodore Roosevelt and took him on late-night walks through Manhattan's Lower East Side to investigate the problems plaguing the urban poor. Rees was an immigrant himself, who arrived in New York with nothing, then made a name for himself exposing the horrors of tenement life. Roosevelt was a member of one of America's wealthiest families, but both men envisioned
5:19 Lindsay Graham? far-reaching reforms that could make a lasting impact on the lives of the cities most vulnerable. These men became two of the leading figures of the Progressive Era. By the 1890s, more than two decades of astonishing economic growth had made the United States one of the world's great industrial powers. Bustling cities, sprawling factories, and powerful corporations drove unprecedented wealth. But this prosperity hid the darker truth of a society rife with corruption, poverty, and injustice. Between the 1890s and World War I, a diverse group of reformers resolved to right America's wrongs by harnessing the power of government. Activists, journalists, lawyers, and politicians
6:00 Lindsay Graham? all fought a wide range of battles, seeking to cleanse cities of crime, prostitution, and drinking. They championed corporate regulation and worker protections, and they strove to reinvigorate democracy and root out corruption. Above all else, these progressives believed in a strong, active government that worked on behalf of all Americans, rather than the privileged few. And as the United States entered the 20th century, the progressive movement steered the nation in a bold new direction, launching an era of reform to give voice to the voiceless. This is episode one in our five-part series, The Progressive Era: Power to the People.
6:43 Lindsay Graham? In the summer of 1894, Chicago became the epicenter of a labor strike that paralyzed rail traffic across the Midwest. The Pullman Palace Car Company was a manufacturer of luxury railway cars based in Pullman, Illinois, just south of Chicago. And in the wake of a punishing economic depression, company owner George Pullman cut employee wages by 25%, but he refused to lower the rents in company-owned housing, which were already significantly higher than the rents in the surrounding area. Before long, many Pullman employees and their families faced starvation. So in May 1894, 3,000 workers walked off the job in protest. But one woman tried to intervene.
7:26 Lindsay Graham? Jane Adams was a college graduate, the daughter of one of the richest men in Illinois. But she had devoted her life to helping the poor as a leader in the settlement house movement, an attempt to address poverty and social issues by establishing community centers in impoverished neighborhoods, providing services like education, healthcare, and social programs. Beginning in the 1880s and 1890s, thousands of middle-class, college-educated reformers, especially young women, moved to working-class neighborhoods across America to try to combat the problems plaguing the urban poor. In 1889, Adams rented an abandoned Chicago mansion in an immigrant neighborhood and opened Hull House. There, she and her fellow settlement workers provided their neighbors with education,
8:11 Lindsay Graham? healthcare, and social services, including a nursery and a public kitchen. And over the next five years, Adams won the respect and support of local politicians, business leaders, and philanthropists. Among them was George Pullman, who had donated small amounts of money to Hull House. So in June of 1894, Adams offered to mediate between the strikers and the company, but Pullman refused to speak with her, insisting there was nothing to negotiate. Soon after, the country's largest railway union launched a nationwide strike in solidarity with the Pullman workers. 125,000 rail workers joined the boycott, refusing to handle any trains carrying Pullman cars.
8:53 Lindsay Graham? As a result, rail traffic ground to a halt in 27 states, threatening the health of the US economy. So in early July, President Grover Cleveland deployed federal troops to Chicago on the grounds that the strike threatened the delivery of mail. On Independence Day, the US Army marched on the city. Three days later, soldiers fired on a mob of protesters, killing several. And while this violence raged, Jane Addams would discover the cost of her commitment to the cause. Imagine it's July 1894 in Chicago. You're huddled over the oak desk in your corner office, rechecking your calculations. The Pullman strike has wreaked havoc on the railroad industry, and your clients are
9:38 Lindsay Graham? struggling. You stamp out your cigar in a silver ashtray and pinch the bridge of your nose in frustration. You let out a slow breath as Jane Addams enters your office. Her hair is pulled back away from her face, and she wears a plain brown silk dress, the picture of wealth and practicality. She doesn't wait for a greeting. "Good afternoon, sir. Your kind secretary let me through." "Oh, did she now? Well, she shouldn't have. I am busy." "I apologize for not making an appointment. I promise not to take much of your time. You've been so generous in your support for Hull House, and our relief work depends on donors like you." You stifle a laugh, exhaling sharply. "So you've come to ask for more money? I've long considered you to be one of the most charitable men in Chicago.
10:22 Lindsay Graham? Even a small gift would go a long way toward helping our poorest neighbors." "You know, Ms. Addams, you had a good thing going. I think you really did. But then you had to go and throw it all away." "Throw it away? I'm afraid I don't understand." "Well, that figures, because like an idiot, you went and mixed yourself up with something you know nothing about." "Ah, you mean the Pullman strike." You wave a hand toward all the paperwork scattered across your desk. "Yes. Those striking workers have cost my clients money. They've cost me money." "Well, sir, you must understand, I took no sides. I only wanted to help mediate." "Well, of course, the saintly Jane Addams comes to the rescue, playing peacemaker, but you've put your nose where it doesn't belong. And now Hull House is going to pay for it."
11:05 Lindsay Graham? Adams straightens her shoulders and then takes a step closer. Me and my nose belong wherever I see suffering and injustice. Don't be so naive. Those workers should be grateful for what George Pullman has done for them for all these years. They're a danger to law and order and the stability of the economy. Sir, you must understand, these men and women are struggling to feed their families. They've been pushed past their limits. Oh, I understand completely. And I don't want my money anywhere near those labor radicals. Now, would you please get out of my office? And I will instruct my secretary not to let you back.
11:41 Lindsay Graham? Adams flinches, and for a second you think she's going to argue. But then she lifts her chin and walks out the door. You return to your calculations, feeling a little bit better about your client's losses after having put her in her place.
11:58 Lindsay Graham? Although Jane Adams insisted on a neutral stance during the strike, she lost friends and donors who accused her of supporting the workers. Affluent Chicagoans called her a traitor to her class. One friend recalled, "The famous Pullman strike was for her the most painful of experiences because she was forced by conviction to work against the stream, to separate herself from the great mass of her countrymen." Seeking solace from her estrangement, Adams walked nearly five miles in the sweltering summer heat to Chicago's Lincoln Park, as the city's streetcars were also on strike. There she found the newly erected bronze statue of Abraham Lincoln, and etched in stone were Lincoln's immortal words, "With charity towards all." They were a powerful reminder of Adams' lifelong mission
12:43 Lindsay Graham? and her sense of responsibility to a democracy she thought was in danger. She reflected that the Pullman strike crisis gave her the paralyzing consciousness that our best efforts were most inadequate.
12:58 Lindsay Graham? The Pullman Strike was one of the most explosive conflicts in an era of rapid industrialization, extreme wealth inequality, and violent labor strife. In the final three decades of the 19th century, America shed its agricultural past and transformed into an industrial economy. In steel mills, oil refineries, and Wall Street banks, powerful businessmen amassed unprecedented fortunes. Skyscrapers rose up over cities, and immigrants flocked to American shores for a piece of the prosperity. But this feverish economic growth came at a cost. Mark Twain dubbed the era "The Gilded Age," observing that "a dazzling surface of wealth and excess masked a society riddled with corruption and inequality."
13:41 Lindsay Graham? Workers toiled under harsh conditions for little pay, robber barons used ruthless tactics to crush the competition, and politics was mired in corruption and scandal. So that by the 1890s, years of social and economic upheaval had convinced many Americans that democracy itself was under threat from the forces of big business. Jane Addams was just one of many reformers who fought the economic and social injustice they saw. They called themselves progressives. And among these, some of the most effective in uncovering injustice and corruption were investigative journalists, who published scathing exposes of exploitation and urban life. In 1890, Danish immigrant Jacob Rees published his groundbreaking book, "How the Other Half
14:26 Lindsay Graham? Lives," a damning account of New York City's disease-ridden slums. The book's photographs and vivid details gave middle-class readers a shocking window into the squalor of immigrant neighborhoods. In the South, Black journalist Ida B. Wells investigated lynching, challenging the myth that it was primarily used to punish Black men for raping white women. Armed with statistics and personal testimony, Wells exposed lynching as a tool to terrorize Black people and enforce white supremacy.
14:57 Lindsay Graham? But journalists weren't the only crusaders. The spirit of reform extended to politics, too. In the early 1890s, the populist movement swept across the Midwest and South. Populism mobilized millions of farmers, laborers, and middle-class activists who were determined to challenge corporate power. They urged the government to rein in the abuses of Wall Street and big business. And as the election of 1896 approached, they resolved to win a seat at the table. That year, the populists rallied behind the Democratic Party's new standard bearer, a brash, 36-year-old Nebraska congressman named William Jennings Bryan. That summer, Bryan electrified the Democratic National Convention with a call for the free
15:39 Lindsay Graham? coinage of silver to relieve farmers suffering under crippling debt. The party nominated him for president the next day. And with the fierce passion of an evangelical preacher, Bryan barnstormed the country, spellbinding audiences with speeches championing common people over corporate interests. Bryan's opponent in the 1896 election was the stately Republican nominee William S. McKinley, a former governor of Ohio. Campaigning from his front porch in Canton, Ohio, McKinley gave sedate speeches in favor of protective tariffs and other business-friendly policies. But what McKinley lacked in rhetorical flair, he made up for in powerful allies, and none more so than Mark Hannah, a millionaire industrial
16:21 Lindsay Graham? tycoon turned political kingmaker. Hannah raised an unprecedented $3.5 million from corporations and wealthy donors, a figure more than 10 times the amount in Bryan's meager war chest. Hannah funneled this money into advertising, targeting various interest groups with specialized campaign ads. He also sent Republican speakers to the Midwest to persuade Democrats to vote for the Republican ticket. And it seemed these efforts worked. On election night, a group of wealthy businessmen and bankers gathered in an elite Chicago club. After midnight, the news arrived that McKinley had defeated Bryan by a margin of nearly 100 electoral votes. The room exploded with cheers, with men jumping on sofas and
17:02 Lindsay Graham? tables, running up and down stairs, and dancing in each other's arms. In Cleveland, the jubilant Mark Hannah fired off a telegram to the president-elect declaring "God's in his heaven. All's right with the world." After Brian's defeat, the populist movement fizzled. Their ideas would live on, but for now it seemed as though only a minority of Americans shared Brian's appetite for reform. Meanwhile, the election outcome was a resounding victory for big business and the wealthy. America's millionaire class felt reassured that their futures were in safe hands, but they wanted access to overseas markets and a chance to flex their muscles on the international stage. A Washington Post editorial declared, "A new consciousness seems to have come upon
17:45 Lindsay Graham? us, the consciousness of strength, and with it a new appetite, the yearning to show our strength." That appetite fueled imperial ambitions, and the results of several conflicts abroad would soon cement America's status as a new imperial power. In the mid-1890s, Americans watched as Cuba fought a brutal war for independence against Spain. American businesses had $50 million invested in Cuba, and war fever burned through the halls of power. The opportunities to join the fight came in January of 1898, when a US Navy vessel, the USS Maine, was sent to Havana Harbor to protect American interests in Cuba. On February 15th, that battleship exploded, killing 260 men.
18:28 Lindsay Graham? The cause of the explosion was unclear, but soon after, Congress declared war on Spain, igniting the Spanish-American War. This conflict lasted less than 100 days, but by the end of the year, the US had acquired sovereignty over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, and it was there, in the aftermath of the war, that Filipinos rebelled against their new American colonial rulers, igniting a war that would claim the lives of thousands of American and Filipino soldiers and some 200,000 Filipino civilians. But America prevailed in this conflict too, and emerged from the Philippine-American War as a global imperial power. At the same time, war-driven federal spending and gold discoveries spurred an economic boom,
19:12 Lindsay Graham? reviving factories and ending mass unemployment. The United States was set to enter the 20th century with newfound prosperity and confidence, but many progressives were horrified by the violence overseas and how it distracted Americans from reforms needed at home. They argued that imperialism violated democratic ideals and served wealthy elites at the expense of ordinary Americans. But these conflicts had another important outcome. The Spanish-American War catapulted Theodore Roosevelt into the national spotlight. As a leader of a group of American volunteer fighters, his daring cavalry charges in Cuba paid him a national hero and celebrity. And soon Roosevelt would begin a meteoric rise in politics,
19:54 Lindsay Graham? embarking on a path leading all the way to the presidency.
20:03 Speaker 03 A trucker merges onto the I-10 in New Orleans. He checks his mirrors. The lane is clear. And then, boom, impact. A pickup truck, seemingly out of nowhere, scrapes down the side of his 18-wheeler. Multiple passengers inside. One man flees the scene. And the driver of the pickup? He doesn't seem all that upset. It didn't feel like a regular accident, because it wasn't. Across the city, truckers are getting sideswiped, all on the same stretch of the same freeway. And behind many of the cases is one person, a Hollywood stunt woman turned personal injury lawyer named Vanessa Moda. This podcast is a story about fake accidents that lead to real consequences and a scheme that ends in betrayal and murder.
20:48 Speaker 03 Listen to Over My Dead Body: Operation Sideswipe wherever you get your podcasts. Audible subscribers can binge all episodes early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts or Spotify.
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21:41 Lindsay Graham? In 1858, Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York City to a wealthy and distinguished family. His father was a businessman and philanthropist who descended from the Dutch merchants who built New York. His mother was raised on a Georgia plantation in the upper echelons of southern society. But despite his privileged birth, adversity shaped Roosevelt's early years. Debilitating asthma left him bedridden for weeks at a time. He sought solace in the outdoors, and as a teenager, he adopted a vigorous exercise regime to improve his health and stamina. He became a lifelong advocate of what he called "the strenuous life," reveling in horseback riding, swimming, hiking, and boxing. He later affirmed that "the highest form of success comes to the man who does not shrink
22:26 Lindsay Graham? from danger, from hardship, or from bitter toil." After graduating from Harvard in 1880, Roosevelt launched his political career, winning a seat on the New York State Assembly. But tragedy struck in 1884, when his mother and his young wife Alice died on the same day, just two days after the birth of Roosevelt's first daughter. Consumed by grief, Roosevelt fled west to the Dakota Badlands, where he spent his days herding cattle, hunting grizzly bears, and chasing outlaws. But after a harsh winter wiped out his cattle herd, he returned east and rekindled a romance with his childhood sweetheart Edith. The couple settled in Oyster Bay, New York, where they raised six children together.
23:09 Lindsay Graham? Then, in the spring of 1895, Roosevelt was appointed as New York City's police commissioner. The police headquarters was across the street from the offices of the New York Evening Sun, where journalist Jacob Rees worked as a police reporter. Roosevelt had read and admired Rees's pioneering study of living conditions in New York's tenements titled "How the Other Half Lives." So he left his card on Rees's desk at the Evening Sun, scribbling a note on the back that said, "I have read your book, and I've come to help." Rees and Roosevelt were from different worlds, but they became fast friends. Rees took Roosevelt on midnight rambles through the city, so Roosevelt could witness the struggles of the poor firsthand.
23:50 Lindsay Graham? This partnership was a major influence on Roosevelt's tenure as police commissioner. He closed the city's crime and disease-ridden police lodging houses, battled bribery in the police force, and had the city tear down the worst tenements. Reese wrote of Roosevelt's efforts, "For the first time, a moral purpose came into the street." And for his part, Roosevelt became convinced by his efforts that real change demanded government oversight, equal enforcement of the law, and strong executive power. He would seek that power through a continued career in politics. After Roosevelt campaigned for William McKinley during the election of 1896, McKinley appointed him as Assistant Secretary of the Navy.
24:31 Lindsay Graham? Roosevelt was an enthusiastic supporter of military intervention, and he harbored hopes that the United States would take action to drive Spain out of Cuba. He told a friend, "I should welcome almost any war, for I think this country needs one." He got what he wanted when McKinley declared war on Spain in 1898, and Roosevelt was determined to see battle himself. Ignoring the pleadings of his wife, he resigned his position in Washington and raised a ragtag volunteer cavalry regiment known as the Rough Riders. After leading a heroic charge up Cuba's San Juan Hill, Roosevelt burst onto the public consciousness. His glasses, prominent teeth, and bristly walrus mustache made him instantly recognizable.
25:12 Lindsay Graham? He stood five foot eight and 200 pounds, a barrel-chested frame to match his forceful, larger-than-life personality. In the fall of 1898, he parlayed this wartime fame into politics, winning the New York governor's race. And during his time in office, he improved labor laws, outlawed racial segregation in public schools, and created park and forestry programs. He also pushed for taxes on large corporations. But these reforms unsettled local political bosses, who found Roosevelt difficult to control. So to sideline him, party leaders sought to stick him in what was considered a largely ceremonial post with no real power, nominating Roosevelt for vice president in 1900. He joined McKinley on the Republican ticket.
25:57 Lindsay Graham? The Democrats once again nominated William Jennings Bryan, creating a rematch of the previous election. McKinley and Roosevelt campaigned under the slogan "Let Well Enough Alone," a motto that captured their party's conservatism and laissez-faire attitudes. Foreign policy, though, was a different matter. Roosevelt brought his zeal for US imperialism to the campaign, defending the annexation of the Philippines in the interest of national honor and manly duty. And when Election Day arrived in November 1900, McKinley once again defeated William Jennings Bryan, this time by an even wider margin. McKinley boasted that he was now president of the whole people. McKinley began his second term as a new century dawned in the United States.
26:40 Lindsay Graham? By the year 1900, there were 76 million Americans, of which one in seven were foreign-born. US factories were now out-producing those of Great Britain and Germany, and more Americans lived in towns and cities than ever, earning rising wages. But a changing America raised a host of difficult questions. Should government rein in the power of big business and industry? What should be done about poverty, crime, and inequality? How could fair labor standards be ensured? And who should have the right to participate in democracy? Some of these questions were answered on the local level. In September of 1900, a hurricane struck the port city of Galveston, Texas, leaving
27:21 Lindsay Graham? 100,000 residents homeless in the greatest natural disaster in American history. In the wake of this hurricane, the city replaced its mayor with a city commission, staffed by five experts, each responsible for a different government department. The idea was to put a stop to the bitter partisan warfare that had long undermined good governments. And the city commission was a success, so that over the next decade, another 300 cities would adopt what became known as the Galveston Plan. These reforms made local governments more efficient and less corrupt, but they reduced the power of poor and minority voters. Previously, city officials were elected by district, allowing working-class neighborhoods to choose representatives who supported their interests.
28:05 Lindsay Graham? With the introduction of citywide elections for commissioners, candidates from poorer areas struggled to afford the high cost of campaigning. But other progressive political reforms occurred at the state level. In Wisconsin, a tireless progressive crusader named Robert LaFollette won the Wisconsin governor's race in 1900. LaFollette's progressive awakening began when he was working as a lawyer in private practice. In 1891, a powerful US senator offered him a bribe to sway a judge. LaFollette angrily refused the bribe, then vowed to devote himself to cleaning up politics. As time went on, his frequent clashes with party leaders earned him the nickname "Fighting Bob." And as governor, he resolved to wrest the power to nominate political candidates from
28:49 Lindsay Graham? the hands of party bosses declaring "The will of the people shall be the law of the land." Imagine it's late at night in February 1901 in the state capital of Madison, Wisconsin. You're a Republican state assemblyman, and you're stumbling back to your office after winning big at a poker game with a colleague and a pair of railroad lobbyists. So you're grinning to yourself when you open the door to your office and turn on the light. The sight of Governor LaFollette, sitting in a worn leather chair, waiting for you, nearly scares you out of your wits. "Oh, God, Governor! What are you doing here?" "Hey, good evening. How was your poker game? Did Philip let you win again?" You sink into the chair across from the governor, trying hard to compose yourself.
29:34 Lindsay Graham? "Oh, well, good evening. What an unexpected surprise. How's Belle and the children?" "Oh, this isn't a social visit. I need to know if I have your vote for the primary election bill." "Ah, well, now that you mention it, I have some reservations." "Hmm, is that so? It seems to me that direct primaries would weaken the party machinery. They'll degrade our politics by turning primary elections into bitter, personal feuds. It'll give rise to demagogues." LaFollette waves his hand impatiently. "No, I'm not interested in your excuses. Have you forgotten the promise you made to the voters who elected you last year?" "Well, no, it's just that this is a delicate matter. We can't go shaking up the whole system."
30:14 Lindsay Graham? I suppose I could consider a modified bill mandating direct primaries for local elections only. Local elections only. You know, if you ask me, it sounds as though you're scared to have your candidacy tested in a primary. And I can imagine why. I don't think voters think too highly of legislators who cozy up to the railroad interests. Have I introduced you to my friend Tom, reporter of the Wisconsin State Journal? I bet he'd be fascinated to hear about your late-night poker games, for instance. Yeah, absolutely fascinated. With a smile, LaFollette stands, claps his hand on your shoulder, and walks toward the door. Now, wait a minute, Governor. LaFollette turns around and raises an eyebrow. Yes? I'll vote for your bill.
30:59 Lindsay Graham? Ah, good man. I knew I could count on you. The governor walks out of your office, and you slump back into your chair, feeling dazed. You fear that he's right, that if you're forced to ask Republican voters to put you on the ballot in a primary, your days in politics are numbered. As governor of Wisconsin, LaFollette put in place direct primaries to give voters the power to select candidates for public office. He also secured a tax law that stripped railroad corporations of tax exemptions, and he relied on experts from the University of Wisconsin to craft policies. Other state governments replicated what became known as the Wisconsin Idea, drawing
31:42 Lindsay Graham? on professors and policy experts to draft legislation. But progressive reform at the local and state level could only do so much. Some problems demanded national solutions. Only the federal government could protect workers and consumers nationwide and curb the power of trusts. In the 1890s, trusts exploded across the US economy. Companies merged into powerful conglomerates to dominate markets and stifle competition. Between 1897 and 1904, roughly 4,000 firms merged into only 257 corporations, crushing small businesses and placing high prices on consumer goods, making a handful of owners extremely wealthy at the expense of the many.
32:27 Lindsay Graham? The largest of these mergers occurred in March 1901, when nine companies combined to create U.S. Steel, valued at $1.4 billion, almost 4% of the entire U.S. gross national product. Steel magnate Andrew Carnegie pocketed $500 million from the deal at a time before income taxes. Later that year, Wall Street titan J.P. Morgan merged several Western railroads into the Northern Securities Company Trust, which stood to monopolize rail traffic from Chicago to San Francisco. Determined to curb the unchecked power a few corporations exercise over the economy, progressive activists urged the White House to break up these trusts. President McKinley considered the options,
33:11 Lindsay Graham? but in September of 1901, when he was just six months into his second term, he was felled by an assassin's bullet. An anarchist in Buffalo, New York, shot him in the abdomen, and he succumbed to his wounds a few days later. Vice President Teddy Roosevelt rushed out of a campsite in the Adirondacks to take the oath of office, and on September 14, 1901, he was sworn in as the 26th President of the United States. At the time, he was just 42 years old, the youngest president America had ever seen. But he was never one to back down from a challenge. A bold new era of strong executive leadership and progressive reform was about to begin.
33:57 Speaker 05 There are books that change how you see the world, and there are books that change how you see yourself. In a new podcast series, A Great Book with Barack Obama, President Obama sits down with a series of surprising and sharp guests to explore six books that have shaped his life and perspective on the world. From "Song of Solomon" and "The Fire Next Time" to "All the Pretty Horses" and "Gilead", the president is joined by guests like Tom Hanks and Ta-Nehisi Coates to reflect on how these timeless stories shaped his thinking on everything from fatherhood to leadership, and discover together what they tell us about the world we live in and the world we want to create. Audible subscribers can listen to all episodes
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34:56 Speaker 06 For decades, two legendary brands fought for the hearts of American bikers: Indian Motorcycle and Harley-Davidson. The battle looked a lot like Coke versus Pepsi or Ford versus Chevy, but tastes changed and Indian didn't adapt fast enough. The icon all but died. Then came the con men, the dreamers, a string of spectacular failures that kept Indian in the grave, until one company finally got it right. This is the story of an improbable revival and the reignition of an old rivalry. Hey, I'm David Brown, the host of the podcast Business Wars. And every season, we bring you the true stories behind the companies that shape our world. Indian's new owners are going all in, but an existential crisis looms. Can Indian and Harley recruit enough younger riders to survive?
35:39 Speaker 06 Make sure to follow Business Wars wherever you get your podcasts. Audible subscribers can binge all episodes of Business Wars early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts.
35:58 Lindsay Graham? In September 1901, Theodore Roosevelt, his wife Edith, and their six children moved into the White House and the executive mansion came alive like never before. The boisterous Roosevelt children slid down banisters, roller skated across the hardwood floors, and trampled through the flower beds on stilts. Ringing through the house was the sound of their laughter and the squealing of the family's menagerie of pets, which included flying squirrels, a badger, and a small bear. The new president was no less lively. A New York Times reporter observed, "The president is always speaking with great animation, gesturing freely, and in fact, talking with his whole being, mouth, eyes, forehead, cheeks, and neck. A hundred times a day, the president will laugh.
36:42 Lindsay Graham? It is usually a roar of laughter, and it comes nearly every five minutes." Another journalist wrote, "You go into Roosevelt's presence and you go home and wring the personality out of your clothes." A friend described him as "an electric battery of inexhaustible energy," energy that Roosevelt was ready to apply to the presidency. So Roosevelt retained President McKinley's cabinet and announced that he would follow the policies of his business-friendly predecessor. Roosevelt knew that he had to be pragmatic to navigate the conservative Republicans who led both houses of Congress, but he was nevertheless determined to use his power as chief executive to serve the public good. His first step in that direction was to take on the trusts.
37:24 Lindsay Graham? In February 1902, he directed the Justice Department to prosecute Northern Securities, the railroad trust organized by J. P. Morgan under the Sherman Antitrust Act. Congress had passed this act in 1890 to prohibit businesses from forming trusts. It was the first federal law designed to promote competition in the marketplace, and its aim was to stop powerful companies from controlling entire industries and unfairly driving up prices. But in its 12-year existence, the Sherman Act had proved largely ineffective. Roosevelt's predecessors declined to enforce it, and the Supreme Court often interpreted the law in ways that protected trusts rather than breaking them up. More often than not, the law was used to prosecute labor unions as illegal associations
38:09 Lindsay Graham? that restricted trade. But Roosevelt was determined to take a different approach and apply the law against big business as intended. But he was not about to bust up every large corporation. He believed there were good trusts that benefited the economy and bad trusts that used corrupt methods to gain an advantage in the market. From his perspective, Northern Securities was a bad trust. When the Justice Department filed its suit, J. P. Morgan was stunned. He had little experience with government oversight, so he rushed to the White House to interrogate Roosevelt, telling him, "If we have done anything wrong, send your man to my man, and they can fix it up." But Roosevelt stood his ground.
38:50 Lindsay Graham? His attorney general Philander Knox interjected, "We don't want to fix it up, we want to stop it." The Supreme Court would eventually uphold this suit, ordering the dissolution of Northern Securities. But Roosevelt proceeded cautiously. He filed one more antitrust suit in 1902, then backed off, wary of rocking the boat with a reelection campaign on the horizon. Because while some Americans resented the power that trusts held over the economy, others saw no reason to challenge big business in a time of prosperity. But even though Roosevelt paused his antitrust campaigning, later in 1902, he had to confront a new test of the powers of the presidency. In May of that year, a strike broke out in the anthracite coal mines of Pennsylvania.
39:34 Lindsay Graham? Anthracite coal burned cleaner than soft coal and was the main heating fuel in many eastern cities, making it a valuable commodity. But all production stopped when nearly 150,000 coal miners, many of them illiterate immigrants, walked off the job in protest of low wages and dangerous working conditions. Their demands included a 20% pay increase and a reduction of the working day from 10 to 9 hours. But the mine owners stubbornly refused to come to the table, and the strike dragged on into the summer. Coal that ordinarily cost $5 to $6 per tonne rose to $14. Protesters clashed with strikebreakers and private guards hired by the mine owners, and in response, the Pennsylvania governor sent state troops in.
40:18 Lindsay Graham? Back in Washington DC, President Roosevelt read reports of the crisis with a growing sense of urgency and alarm.
40:29 Lindsay Graham? Imagine it's late August 1902 in Washington DC. You're the Attorney General, and you're on a sunset walk with President Roosevelt in Lafayette Square. The fading light casts long shadows on the park as you try to keep up with the president's brisk, restless pace. He walks with the force of a cavalry charge. Oh, it's an outrage, I tell you. The strike's gone on for months, and we can't let this continue. You take a steadying breath. But we've been over this, Mr. President. You have no authority to intervene. This is a dispute between a private company and labor. The federal government has no standing. No standing. No standing when the American people are suffering. What am I here for if not to help them? There must be something I could do. I could, I could release the Labor Commissioner's report on the dispute. Oh, I would advise against it.
41:14 Lindsay Graham? It could be seen as interference. Then we go to the courts. If we can't order the mine owners to give in, we break them apart. You could file an antitrust suit. I don't believe there are grounds for a lawsuit. The coal operators may be ruthless, but they're not a trust. They're not violating the law. Roosevelt stops abruptly and then rounds on you, fixing you with a withering look. "I don't give a damn if they're not breaking the law. The price of coal has more than doubled. There are reports of potential shortages in New York. I have half a mind to call in the army, seize the mines myself." "Oh, don't even think about it, sir." "Well, the American people are on my side. They're urging me to act. How can I ignore them, still call myself president?" "Well, the American people may be on your side, but the Constitution is not.
41:57 Lindsay Graham? This is a matter of moral duty, and I'm not one to shirk duty."
42:03 Lindsay Graham? The lights flickered a life along Pennsylvania Avenue, illuminating the dark circles under the president's eyes. You've never seen him so agitated. With a frustrated growl, he strides off in the direction of the White House, and you watch him go with a heavy suspicion about what will happen next. Theodore Roosevelt is not a man who can easily be restrained.
42:27 Lindsay Graham? Although Roosevelt was desperate to intervene in the coal strike, his Attorney General Philander Knox told him that the Constitution provided no authority for a president to mediate a dispute between labor and management. Roosevelt told a senator, "I am at wit's end as had to proceed." The strike stretched on, and by September, coal prices soared to $20 a ton. Hotels and restaurants raised their prices, and landlords hiked their rents. Chicagoans burned street paving, and railroads gave their employees old wooden rail ties to use as fuel. The US Post Office threatened to shut down, and Pennsylvania steel mills faced mass layoffs. All of this, and winter was yet to set in. In a few months, many Americans might not be
43:09 Lindsay Graham? able to afford to heat their homes. So they urged Roosevelt to take action, especially in the Northeast. One Massachusetts senator warned, "The demand that the government take the coalfields is rising louder all the time. It's a perilous cry. When the cold weather comes, it will be far worse." President Roosevelt admitted he had fears of untold misery with a certainty of riots which might develop into social war, but he was forced to reckon with the limits of presidential power and the knowledge that if this crisis in the coal mines went unresolved, it could derail the nation's economy and the future of his presidency. From Wondery, this is episode one of our five-part series, The Progressive Era, from American History Tellers.
43:52 Lindsay Graham? On the next episode, President Theodore Roosevelt takes unprecedented action to bring the Pennsylvania coal strike to an end. Meanwhile, journalist Ida Tarbell exposes the ruthless tactics of oil tycoon J.D. Rockefeller, and author Upton Sinclair shocks readers with his graphic account of the Chicago meatpacking industry.
44:14 Lindsay Graham? American History Tellers is only possible because of listeners like you, so thank you. And don't miss an episode. Be sure to follow American History Tellers on Audible or wherever you get your podcasts. Audible subscribers can binge new seasons of American History Tellers early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts. And to find out more about me, including my other podcasts, my live show, the history tours I'm arranging, and all sorts of other things, go to historyishuman.com. That's historyishuman.com.
44:51 Lindsay Graham? American History Tellers is hosted, edited, and produced by me, Lindsay Graham, for Airship. Audio editing by Christian Paraga. Sound design by Molly Bach. Supervising sound designer, Matthew Philler. Music by Thrum. This episode is written by Ellie Stanton. Edited by Dorian Marina. Produced by Alita Rosansky. Managing producer, Desi Blalock. Senior managing producer, Callum Pluse. Senior producer, Andy Herman. And executive producers are Jenny Lauer Beckman, Marshall Louie, and Erin O'Flaherty for Wondery.
45:28 Speaker 04 Imagine you're reading Pride and Prejudice, except you're not reading it. Harris Dickinson and Marissa Abella are reading it to you on Audible. Her barbs sting you. His coldness sends a shiver up your spine. Your heart aches. Your ears burn. You yearn for Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy to profess their undying love for one another. You can't bear it any longer. Well, maybe a chapter longer. Performance is so good, you'll give love a second chance. Audible. Stories that speak to you.
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