Abortion Before Roe

Abortion wasn't always controversial. In fact, in colonial America it would have been considered a fairly common practice: a private decision made by women, and aided mostly by midwives. But in the mid-1800s, a small group of physicians set out to change that. Obstetrics was a new field, and they wanted it to be their domain—meaning, the domain of men and medicine. Led by a zealous young doctor named Horatio Storer, they launched a campaign to make abortion illegal in every state, spreading a potent cloud of moral righteousness and racial panic that one historian later called "the physicians' crusade." And so began the century of criminalization. This episode originally ran as Before Roe: The Physicians' Crusade. See pcm.adswizz.com https://pcm.adswizz.com for information about our collection and use of personal data for sponsorship and to manage your podcast sponsorship preferences. NPR Privacy Policy https://www.npr.org/about-npr/179878450/privacy-policy

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• 0:00Speaker 00

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• 0:16Rund Abdelfatah?

  A note before we get started. This episode contains graphic descriptions of abortion and suicide. If you or someone you know may be considering suicide or is in crisis, call or text 988 to reach the suicide and crisis lifeline.

• 0:47Speaker 02

  The police were startled by the announcement that the well-known Madame Restel had been found dead earlier this morning in the bathroom of her mansion on Fifth Avenue. She rose in the night and went into the bathroom where she suicided. The coroner's physician examined the body and found that a deep gash had been cut across the front of the throat, severing the jugular vein. The water had been left running in the bathtub, and hence, there was but little blood in the water, which still filled the tub. The body was cold, and it was evident that the woman had been dead for some hours.

• 1:32Rund Abdelfatah?

  In the early hours of Wednesday, April 1, 1878, the death of a woman named Madame Restel, known to some as "the wickedest woman in New York,"

• 1:42Speaker 03

  Read all about it.

• 1:43Rund Abdelfatah?

  rocked the country.

• 1:47Speaker 04

  The Morning Herald, Wilmington, Delaware.

• 1:50Speaker 05

  Madame Restel found dead. Madame Restel left a fortune estimated at from $1 million to $1,500,000.

• 1:58Rund Abdelfatah?

  The New York Times.

• 2:00Speaker 00

  Having for nearly 40 years been before the public as a woman who is growing rich by the practice of a nefarious business, she yesterday came to a violent end by cutting her throat, ear to ear.

• 2:11Speaker 04

  The Cincinnati Daily Star, Cincinnati, Ohio.

• 2:14Speaker 06

  Another story is that Madame Restel was murdered through the instigation of wealthy people who had patronized her in her criminal business.

• 2:22Rund Abdelfatah?

  Clarksville Weekly Chronicle, Clarksville, Tennessee.

• 2:26Speaker 02

  Crimes of this wretched woman were not hers alone. They were the crimes of a splendid, profligate society, of which she was simply the paid agent. She has simply done upon herself the vengeance which the law should have inflicted many years ago. Systematic murder was her trade, the murder of the unborn perpetrated to shield the guilty lusts of the living. We are using language which will be blamed as shocking to society, but society needs to be shocked.

• 3:00Rund Abdelfatah?

  Madame Rastell was one of the key targets of a moral crusade that had swept the country, a crusade that started in the 1800s and led to a century of criminalizing abortion, a century that came to an end in the early 1970s. Good evening. In a landmark ruling, the Supreme Court today legalized abortions. The majority said that the decision to end a pregnancy during the first three months belongs to the woman and her doctor, not the government. Thus, the anti-abortion laws of 46 states were rendered unconstitutional. Roe versus Wade.

• 3:37Speaker 00

  People, I think, still think that abortion was never practiced and was always illegal until the Supreme Court decision in 1973. And they think that the decision created the practice of abortion and expanded it. And that is completely wrong. That is not true. It was legal under common law in the colonial era in what is now the United States and in the early United States. It was not made criminal in the way that we think of it from conception on until late 19th century.

• 4:20Speaker 00

  And throughout all that time, abortion was practiced by many people and really accepted in a certain way by Americans.

• 4:34Speaker 04

  This is historian Leslie Wiegand. She's a professor at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and author of the book

• 4:41Speaker 00

  When Abortion Was a Crime: Women Medicine and Law in the United States.

• 4:44Speaker 04

  In the country's early days, people like Madame Marstel were thriving. When she began her practice around the 1830s.

• 4:52Speaker 00

  She wasn't hiding her practice at all, but nor was anybody else. She was a very good businesswoman, made a lot of money, and was very rich and obvious in New York City.

• 5:04Speaker 04

  But by the end of her life, in 1878, Madame Marstel was facing criminal prosecution, and some had branded her "a monster in human shape." Her name had become synonymous with abortion.

• 5:17Rund Abdelfatah?

  Over the course of a couple decades, the country had moved from thinking of abortion as a personal matter, a common practice that happened everywhere, albeit quietly and in private, to a criminal offense outlawed across the country. The question is, how and why did that change happen? I'm Rande Abdelfattah.

• 5:39Speaker 04

  I'm Ramtin Arablouei.

• 5:41Rund Abdelfatah?

  And on this episode of Throughline from NPR, we're looking back at how and why laws outlawing abortion in every state were put on the books in the first place.

• 5:54Rund Abdelfatah?

  Coming up, a moral crusade is born.

• 6:06Speaker 03

  Hello, this is Emily from Lompoc, California, and you're listening to Throughline from NPR.

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• 7:47Speaker 04

  Part one, the quickening.

• 7:55Speaker 05

  Dear Father, I did not sail before half past eight last night as the vessel had to wait for a passenger. After we had started, a fog came up and we had to anchor in the narrows. I never was out in such rough weather in my life, on deck nearly all the time, and yet was not so sick as I was the other day.

• 8:16Speaker 04

  In 1849, when he was 19 years old, Horatio Storer sailed from Boston to the wilds of Labrador, Canada, on a research expedition alongside a naturalist, an expert in the natural world. They were interested in the process of reproduction, which they hoped to learn more about by studying the embryos of birds and fish.

• 8:38Speaker 05

  Hundreds of fish are strewed on the shore, among which I noticed Menhaden herring goosefish, smooth and prickly.

• 8:45Speaker 04

  It was the early days of embryology, a branch of biology focused on prenatal development of embryos and fetuses. Charles Darwin, a naturalist himself, would soon publish his theory of evolution, drawing a direct line between man and beast.

• 9:05Speaker 04

  Horatio Storer was fascinated by all of it. Embryos, nature, the circle of life. So when he got back home to Boston, he decided to enroll in medical school, following in his father's footsteps, who was a doctor who specialized in obstetrics, a modernizing field of medicine focused around childbirth.

• 9:24Speaker 06

  It was a time in which there was the burgeoning professionalization of obstetrics by white men of medicine.

• 9:33Speaker 04

  This is Michelle Goodwin, a professor of law at Georgetown Law. She's written a lot about the legal history of abortion, including policing the womb, invisible women, and the criminalization of motherhood.

• 9:46Speaker 06

  These are the people who were leading the way in terms of the professionalization of this new thing, obstetrics. And at the same time, they were articulating their insecurities and really a level of high disregard for midwives.

• 10:05Speaker 04

  There are different theories on why some doctors began to get interested in childbirth. Some historians believe it was a money grab. If you delivered the baby, the family would call you back for all the falls and fevers that came after that.

• 10:18Rund Abdelfatah?

  Others believe these doctors genuinely thought they could make childbirth safer for women. In the early 1800s, around 500 in every 100,000 births ended in the death of the mother. Today, that number has dropped by 95%. So it was a lot more deadly then. And doctors like Horatio Storer thought they were helping women at a time when women didn't have much of a say. But women didn't necessarily want their help.

• 10:56Rund Abdelfatah?

  For tens of thousands of years.

• 10:57Speaker 06

  Childbirth and pregnancy was all in the domain of women.

• 11:01Rund Abdelfatah?

  Historian Leslie Regan again.

• 11:03Speaker 06

  Midwives delivered babies and they did it surrounded by her friends, her mother, her sister, potentially her daughters, neighbors. There was a crowd of. Women involved in the delivery along with the midwife.

• 11:19Rund Abdelfatah?

  But in the early 1800s, as more doctors.

• 11:22Speaker 06

  Male doctors, doctor equal male.

• 11:24Rund Abdelfatah?

  Entered the delivery room.

• 11:26Speaker 06

  Which is in the woman's, you know, in her own home, in her own bedroom, or her mother's bedroom.

• 11:31Rund Abdelfatah?

  That began to shift a millennia-old dynamic. And as you can imagine, having a man in the room suddenly introduced some awkwardness.

• 11:40Speaker 06

  Especially a brand-new doctor, sometimes they've never seen a childbirth at all.

• 11:44Rund Abdelfatah?

  New doctors, like Horatio Storer.

• 11:47Speaker 06

  So they could be coming in, and they're surrounded by older women who know what's happening. And there are these stories, doctors' diaries of, you know, they've been taught you need to shave the woman's pubic hair, you know, for sanitation before you deliver the baby. And they pull out that shaver, and they're kicked out of the room. They're like, "You are out of here. You're not doing this."

• 12:22Rund Abdelfatah?

  Storer and his fellow specialists in women's health didn't just face skepticism from women in those delivery rooms. Other doctors also looked down on them.

• 12:31Speaker 06

  Because as you think about it, they were entering a profession where nearly 100% of it had been done by women. More than 50% of that had been done by Black women.

• 12:41Rund Abdelfatah?

  Some even referred to the specialty as "man-midwifery." It was a time when modern medicine was still in its early days. There were no antibiotics, no pregnancy tests, no ultrasounds. People didn't really go to hospitals. C-sections were rarely done, and even more rarely successful.

• 12:59Speaker 04

  Not to mention, some considered it improper, even offensive, for a male doctor to perform a pelvic exam, especially as the field of medicine was still trying to establish itself as a bona fide profession, mainly in the United States and Europe. For the most part, up until the 1870s in the US.

• 13:17Speaker 06

  There were no laws regulating who was a doctor.

• 13:20Speaker 04

  Then, some states began passing medical licensing laws. More medical schools opened up. And in 1847, a small group of doctors started the American Medical Association, the AMA.

• 13:32Speaker 06

  They explicitly do not include, women and African-Americans are not part of their medical profession.

• 13:39Speaker 00

  Chapter 1 of the duties of physicians to their patients.

• 13:44Speaker 06

  And of the obligations of patients to their physicians.

• 13:47Speaker 04

  And they laid out an elaborate code of ethics.

• 13:50Speaker 06

  Physicians are enabled to exhibit the close connection between hygiene and morals. Physicians as conservators.

• 13:58Speaker 04

  Despite their best efforts, the AMA wasn't having much luck convincing people to take them seriously. The editor of the Cincinnati Medical Observer described physicians as "a body of jealous, quarrelsome men, whose chief delight is in the annoyance and ridicule of each other."

• 14:15Rund Abdelfatah?

  By the time Horatio Storer came along in the 1850s, they were desperate for ideas about how to make their profession more respectable, and Storer set his sights on abortion.

• 14:30Rund Abdelfatah?

  Just as women had overseen childbirth for most of human history, they'd also been on the front lines of ending unwanted pregnancies, of carrying out abortions. But in early America, they wouldn't have been using the term abortion. At the time, it was referred to as "restoring the menses," trying to get your period again.

• 14:50Speaker 00

  You know, taking herbs, taking teas, riding horses, falling downstairs, trying, trying to get their menses back.

• 14:58Rund Abdelfatah?

  It was considered acceptable for women to restore their menses up until the moment of quickening, when...

• 15:04Speaker 00

  When they felt quickening, when they felt movement.

• 15:08Speaker 06

  Which, for some women, doesn't occur until the fifth month of a pregnancy. So people didn't wrestle with this as a moral or ethical or even a legal question if a woman engaged in that practice before about the fourth or fifth month of pregnancy.

• 15:23Rund Abdelfatah?

  There were no laws in place to prevent abortions before quickening.

• 15:27Speaker 06

  And so the conception of when life began really began at the moment of quickening.

• 15:35Rund Abdelfatah?

  By some estimates, in the late 19th century, around 2 million abortions were performed each year, which means the number of abortions per capita was several times higher than it is today. Keep in mind, birth control options were very limited then, so there was less you could do to prevent a pregnancy in the first place.

• 15:54Speaker 00

  You know, quickening is recognized and the law and churches and, you know, the general community understands that this is in women's purview in terms of what's going on with their bodies. They know their bodies.

• 16:09Rund Abdelfatah?

  In other words, it was your call as the woman to say when or if you felt movement.

• 16:16Speaker 00

  So I think one thing that people misunderstand about the opposition to abortion is that people assume that there's always been a vibrant religious or moral opposition to abortion. And that, in fact, that's actually relatively recent. It's not something rooted in ancient history.

• 16:35Rund Abdelfatah?

  This is Carissa Halgeberg.

• 16:37Speaker 00

  I'm an associate professor of history at Tulane University.

• 16:40Rund Abdelfatah?

  And author of the book, Women Against Abortion: Inside the Largest Moral Reform Movement of the 20th Century.

• 16:47Speaker 00

  The question is, how does this go from being a personal, private decision, either among women or between couples, to one that the state becomes invested in?

• 16:59Rund Abdelfatah?

  This question brings us back to Madame Ristel, the so-called abortionist of Fifth Avenue.

• 17:11Speaker 00

  Madame Ristel, female physician, office and residence 148 Greenwich Street, between Cortland and Liberty, where she can be consulted with the strictest confidence on complaints incidental to the female frame.

• 17:25Speaker 04

  Years before Horatio Storer started building up his name in medicine, advertisements for Madame Ristel's services filled the papers. $5 for a packet of preventative powder, $1 for female monthly pills. And if those didn't work, she offered surgical abortions. $20 for poor women, $100 for the rich. She called herself a doctor, just like many others in the business did.

• 17:50Speaker 00

  Dr. Dow advertised. Dr. Car-

• 17:53Speaker 04

  Sleeping Lucy in Vermont. They were all creating a persona, a brand, like Madame Restel. She arrived in New York City from England in 1831 with her husband and newborn baby. Back then, she went by An Tro Summers. But within months, her husband died of fever and she was left on her own. Looking around, she saw that the marketplace for helping women prevent and end pregnancies was thriving, so she changed her name to Madame Restel and opened up shop.

• 18:26Rund Abdelfatah?

  The pills sold in this marketplace turned traditional folk remedies that had been around for centuries into commercial products. They didn't always work and sometimes produced harmful side effects. Some women died.

• 18:39Speaker 03

  The American health marketplace in general was kind of dangerous. People were routinely sending away for herbal remedies to cure all matter of maladies.

• 18:49Rund Abdelfatah?

  Some states began passing poison control laws.

• 18:52Speaker 03

  It was a desire to protect women from ingesting poisons that might harm them.

• 18:57Rund Abdelfatah?

  Madame Restel and others began to be charged under these laws, but the penalties were never too harsh. And though it earned Madame Restel some critics in the papers, she continued to celebrate her abortion business loudly, living a life of luxury.

• 19:12Speaker 04

  1847, The Sunday Dispatch, New York City.

• 19:16Speaker 05

  Madame Restel is showy enough for a princess. She likes fine carriages, handsome horses, and expensive living. Her pew is one of the pleasantists in a very fashionable church. She has fortified herself too strongly ever to be overthrown.

• 19:33Speaker 04

  At that point, no one, least of all Madame Restel herself, believed her reign would ever end.

• 19:42Rund Abdelfatah?

  But those poison control laws were just the start of a moral tide that was sweeping the country.

• 19:52Speaker 05

  is nowhere more manifest than in the histories of criminal abortion.

• 19:57Rund Abdelfatah?

  And it would lay the foundation for a campaign to make abortion not only immoral, but illegal, a campaign that would eventually take down Madame Ristel and the entire abortion marketplace, a campaign led by Horatio Storr.

• 20:13Speaker 05

  If we had proved the existence of fetal life before quickening has taken place or can take place, we are compelled to believe unjustifiable abortion always a crime.

• 20:27Speaker 04

  Coming up, Horatio Storr launches the Physicians Crusade against abortion.

• 20:38Speaker 03

  Hi, this is Tobias Dwyer from Ann Arbor, Michigan, and you're listening to Through Life from NPR.

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• 21:55Speaker 05

  Part Two: A Century of Criminalization.

• 22:02Speaker 05

  The moral guilt of criminal abortion depends entirely upon the real and essential nature of the act. It is the intention of the ...destruction of a child within its parent. And physicians have now agreed from actual and various proof that the child is alive from the moment of conception.

• 22:23Rund Abdelfatah?

  In 1860, governors of every single state in the US received this letter from the recently established American Medical Association.

• 22:33Speaker 05

  The evil to society of this crime is evident from the fact that its instances in this country are now to be counted by hundreds of thousands.

• 22:42Rund Abdelfatah?

  But there was really only one guy holding the pen.

• 22:46Speaker 03

  Horatio Storer.

• 22:48Rund Abdelfatah?

  Carissa Halgberg again, who studied the formation of the anti-abortion movement.

• 22:53Speaker 03

  Basically, he ghost-wrote a letter from the president of the AMA, so it looked like it was coming from the president, but Storer was actually the one who wrote it, saying that the AMA opposes abortion, and he used the language of morality.

• 23:07Speaker 05

  In reality, there is little difference between the immorality by which a man forsakes his home for an occasional visit to a house of prostitution, that he may preserve his wife from the chance of pregnancy, and the immorality by which that wife brings herself willfully to destroy the living fruit of her womb.

• 23:27Rund Abdelfatah?

  The letter was pivotal to what historians call "the physician's crusade against abortion." And Storer was making a few key arguments for why abortion should be illegal across the country. First, he introduced a new idea.

• 23:43Speaker 05

  The child is alive from the moment of conception.

• 23:47Rund Abdelfatah?

  That life began at conception. Remember, up till now, people generally agreed that life began when a woman could actually feel life move inside her at quickening. But that wasn't enough for Storer. He campaigned on a moral argument that also tapped into the racial fears of the moment, fears that would eventually inspire a pseudo-scientific field of, quote, "racial improvement and planned breeding of the population."

• 24:15Speaker 03

  American eugenics.

• 24:16Rund Abdelfatah?

  These racial fears would inspire forced sterilization programs to decrease certain populations. Whereas Storer's anti-abortion campaign was trying to increase other populations by focusing on

• 24:30Speaker 03

  Protestant white women.

• 24:32Rund Abdelfatah?

  Because elite Protestant white women were often the ones going to people like Madame Ristel. And people like Horatio Storer were realizing that that had consequences.

• 24:42Speaker 03

  The birth rate for Protestant white women had been declining over the course of the 19th century. So he had fears of what was commonly referred to as race suicide. That the Anglo stock wasn't going to replenish itself fast enough to keep up with the swells of new immigrants to the United States.

• 25:01Speaker 00

  And who is going to have power and populate this country and populate the Great Plains and the Great West? Well, it is going to be Chinese migrants, it's going to be African Americans, newly freed people, and Catholics. They are not the ones using abortion. It's our, you know, Yankee women who are using abortion, trying to get into medical school, trying to do politics when they should be at home having babies and taking care of them.

• 25:28Speaker 06

  They began to say, we need white women to use their loins because they're concerned about the blackening and the browning of what is now, what at that point became the United States. And this real concern that when black people become free, what will this mean for white people? And white women become a key to that.

• 25:52Rund Abdelfatah?

  So part of Storer's thinking was that criminalizing abortion would help rebalance the scales of who was being born into this country. But there was more to his strategy. He saw this as a way to finally knock out the competition, midwives and people like Madame Ristel.

• 26:08Speaker 03

  And so if the AMA could wrest control over the marketplace of abortion, it would be lucrative to this growing cadre of university-educated, mostly male physicians who are beginning to specialize in things like obstetrics and gynecology.

• 26:25Speaker 04

  So midwives were slandered in this campaign.

• 26:27Speaker 06

  Described as unsanitary, unclean, as unmoral.

• 26:31Speaker 04

  And as clueless as the mothers themselves.

• 26:34Speaker 00

  Do not know, they don't know when they quicken. And really makes fun of women's own sensations and knowledges and says, you know, some of them quicken at one month, some of them never quicken at all, and then they have a baby.

• 26:48Speaker 03

  They may very constantly be recognized by the physician in cases where no sensation is felt by the mother.

• 26:56Speaker 00

  So there's this scoffing at women's knowledge, saying, this is a sin, this is murder, you're killing children.

• 27:03Speaker 03

  By the moral law, the willful killing of a human being at any stage of its existence is murder.

• 27:13Speaker 00

  And the general public and women don't get it, they don't know that, and we need to change the laws.

• 27:19Rund Abdelfatah?

  So to help people get it, Storah wrote articles, books, reports, speeches, all to make his views on abortion and women clear. In one lecture called "The Origins of Insanity in Women," he advocated for overreactivities for women who, quote, "have become habitually thievish."

• 27:39Speaker 03

  Profane or obscene, despondent or self-indulgent, truest or fatuous.

• 27:45Rund Abdelfatah?

  The solution, as he saw it.

• 27:47Speaker 03

  Remove the cause.

• 27:49Rund Abdelfatah?

  A woman's reproductive organs.

• 27:52Speaker 03

  He was really hostile to women.

• 27:55Rund Abdelfatah?

  And that hostility was starting to gain traction. A few years into the campaign, some states began to pass laws outlawing or restricting abortion. Perhaps the harshest was in Connecticut in 1860. The law got rid of the quickening rule and made abortion a crime for which the abortionist and the woman getting the abortion could be fined and jailed. And over the next few decades, most states across the country would adopt similar laws, thanks in part to another campaign that was going on at the same time, that was getting even more attention. It was led by a Union Army Civil War veteran named.

• 28:35Speaker 03

  Anthony Comstock, who's well-known for leading the anti-birth control.

• 28:39Rund Abdelfatah?

  Crusade of the 19th century.

• 28:43Rund Abdelfatah?

  Anthony Comstock was a descendant of some of the earliest Puritans in New England. He took that ancestry to heart and went on to work with the Young Men's Christian Association, the YMCA, in New York City and founded the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice. And he dedicated his life to exactly that, suppressing vice.

• 29:05Speaker 04

  In 1873, Comstock began lobbying Congress to pass anti-obscenity laws. There had been a rise of prostitution and new forms of birth control like diaphragms and rubber condoms, all of which triggered a powerful backlash, a backlash that culminated in the Comstock Law.

• 29:23Speaker 06

  The criminalization of sending materials through the mail that could be seen as obscene.

• 29:30Speaker 02

  That no obscene, lewd, or lascivious book, pamphlet, picture, paper, print, or other publication of an indecent character, or any article or thing designed or intended for the prevention of conception or procuring of abortion, nor any article or thing intended or adapted-

• 29:49Speaker 04

  The law made it illegal to mail sex toys, pornography, contraception, abortion drugs, or even information about contraception and abortion.

• 29:59Speaker 06

  Including some medical books that had pictures of anatomy, right? It's just how deep it went.

• 30:06Speaker 04

  But here's the thing, Comstock conflated birth control with abortion. He saw no difference between the two, which meant that abortion was wrapped up into this new law, making it a federal offense to send or order material about abortion by mail, with punishment of up to $5,000 in fines, which is over $110,000 today, and up to 10 years in prison. The law was the first of its kind in the Western world.

• 30:35Rund Abdelfatah?

  Between Comstock's laws and Horatio Storer's crusade, by 1880, every single state had a law outlawing abortion on the books. These laws launched a century of criminalization.

• 30:50Speaker 03

  In terms of the way the laws are written, there is always an exception written into the laws that allow for medical professionals, for doctors, to perform abortions if they, in their medical judgment, believe it is necessary to save a woman's life or to save her health. This is clearly written from the perspective of a specific group of the medical profession, and they're really claiming abortion as theirs. It is the procedure that doctors can perform if they believe it is medically necessary. And that medically necessary is not defined in the law. But it does mean that they can kind of control this and also say, you know, other people, midwives,

• 31:34Speaker 03

  you know, Madame Rastell, immigrants, bad people are doing this procedure, and it's immoral, and now it's illegal.

• 31:43Rund Abdelfatah?

  Unless it's done by us, doctors.

• 31:50Speaker 04

  In the end, Horatio Storer and the AMA's campaign against abortion, aided by Anthony Comstock's anti-contraception campaign, was a success. And although not all doctors agreed with or followed the new laws, midwives and entrepreneurs like Madame Rastell were still sidelined as male gynecologists and obstetricians took over. But they didn't just lose business. They were in danger now that their very livelihoods were illegal. Things were especially dire for Madame Rastell, since she had been so public and bold about her services. Her clientele were mainly upper-class white women, though women Storer believed should be having more kids. All eyes were on her as these laws took hold.

• 32:35Speaker 04

  And Comstock made it his mission to end her.

• 32:44Rund Abdelfatah?

  In 1878, he rang her doorbell on East 52nd Street, pretending that he was a married man seeking an abortion for his wife, who already had too many children and wasn't in good enough health to birth another. She sold him some pills, and he was on his way. But the next day, Comstock returned with a police officer who arrested Ristel. As always, Ristel went to the press.

• 33:10Speaker 03

  He's in this nasty detective business. There are a number of little doctors who are in the same business behind him. They think if they can get me in trouble and out of the way, they can make a fortune. If the public are determined to push this matter, they will have a good laugh when they learn the nature of the terrible items of the preventative prescriptions. Of course, if there's a trial, it will all come out.

• 33:37Speaker 04

  But there was never a trial. Ristel became distressed. She paced around her house, asking her servants why she was persecuted time and time again. And on the morning of the day she was supposed to appear in court, one of her chambermaids walked into her bathroom to find her dead in her bathtub. She had slit her own throat.

• 33:58Rund Abdelfatah?

  When Comstock found out, he took out his file on her and wrote, quote, "A bloody ending to a bloody life."

• 34:13Speaker 04

  As for Horatio Stor, he co-founded the Gynecological Society of Boston, which focused on diseases that affected women and reproductive health, and came to be known as a pioneer in the field of OBGYN, obstetrics, and gynecology.

• 34:31Speaker 06

  When we think about this, is there any wonder why, for so long, medicine looked white and male in the United States? What explains that? It's certainly not because women aren't intellectually curious about medicine. It's not because women don't know how to read books. It is because the American Medical Association, through the tools of all of this time, very specifically, very specifically, made sure that women would be cut out.

• 35:05Rund Abdelfatah?

  Coming up, abortions go underground.

• 35:17Speaker 03

  Hi, my name is Ben Corso. I'm a teacher from Tampa, Florida. And this is Drew Lin from NPR.

• 35:25Speaker 00

  Stay tuned for the following announcements and messages from our sponsors. This episode's sponsor is HubSpot, which offers the following message: What if instead of updating your CRM, your CRM updated you? No catching up on manual edits, no more guesswork. HubSpot's self-updating CRM keeps your customer context current and helps you understand what to do next. So, marketing builds more demand, sales wins more deals, and customers keep coming back. Learn more at hubspot.com. Oh, Kevin, it feels good to be back. It sure does, Casey. And what a time. The world is talking about AI and what's going on in Silicon Valley. And we are here with a new show to tell you all about it. That's right, Kevin. On our new show, Machine Gods, twice a week, we'll be bringing you the biggest news in tech

• 36:10Speaker 00

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• 36:19Speaker 03

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• 36:42Speaker 05

  Part Three, Into the Shadows.

• 36:46Speaker 03

  I still remember the sound.

• 36:56Rund Abdelfatah?

  When Joan Lester was 19 years old, she found herself in a dark room with a doctor whose name she didn't know.

• 37:03Speaker 03

  I don't even know if he was a gynecologist.

• 37:05Rund Abdelfatah?

  Alone at midnight, getting an illegal abortion. What happened next was really common and really graphic.

• 37:15Speaker 03

  So, he told me to lie down on the table. You know, take my pants off first. I lay down on this table.

• 37:24Speaker 03

  He inserted a curette, which is basically- And began to scrape the inside of my uterus to scrape out the fetus. And I still remember the sound.

• 37:38Speaker 03

  In addition to the pain, I don't think he gave me any painkillers. And so I began to moan and then I think I screamed.

• 37:49Speaker 03

  He clamped his hand over my mouth. He said, "Shut up."

• 37:55Speaker 03

  And that's mostly all I remember about it.

• 38:00Rund Abdelfatah?

  At the end of the procedure, the doctor gave her a couple of towels.

• 38:04Speaker 03

  Blood was just coming down my legs and I remember soaking through the one or two towels that I had. It hurt like hell. I, um, I was probably crying.

• 38:20Rund Abdelfatah?

  A few weeks later, Joan was still in a lot of pain. So she went to the closest hospital, looking for answers, looking for help.

• 38:29Speaker 03

  I got to the hospital emergency room and there was a doctor there who was the admitting doctor.

• 38:36Rund Abdelfatah?

  She told him she'd had an abortion.

• 38:38Speaker 03

  And there I am, writhing in pain.

• 38:40Rund Abdelfatah?

  When suddenly, his whole demeanor changed.

• 38:43Speaker 03

  And he said, "You're an abomination. This is God's punishment to you for your sin, for what you've done. And you're never going to have children. Your tubes are going to be sealed up because you have this huge pelvic inflammatory infection." And, um, he was just screaming at me.

• 39:05Rund Abdelfatah?

  Joan was admitted into the hospital and put on antibiotics. If she'd waited, she might have gone into septic shock when an infection causes your blood pressure to drop to life-threatening levels. Over the next week, she began to recover.

• 39:21Speaker 03

  And I have to say that this...

• 39:24Speaker 03

  Was probably not one of the most extreme examples of what happened to women. They were just all kind of horror stories because we were just completely vulnerable because we had done something illegal. And, you know, we basically had no rights.

• 39:42Rund Abdelfatah?

  For decades after Horatio Storer and the AMA got those laws on the books in every state, women continued to quietly seek out abortions in the private practices of doctors who disagreed with or simply worked outside of the laws, which there were plenty of. Those doctors rarely face criminal charges unless a woman died. It wasn't until the middle of the 20th century that the horror stories of botched illegal abortions, like Joan Lester's, began skyrocketing, a byproduct of a changing world.

• 40:15Speaker 05

  The hospitals, designed to serve thousands at a time, are equipped with the most modern devices and specialists and expert technicians.

• 40:26Speaker 00

  By World War II, everybody is in the hospital.

• 40:29Speaker 03

  John Rogers Jr., white, six pounds. Mother's name Clara.

• 40:33Speaker 00

  90, 95% of the entire population goes to hospital to deliver babies.

• 40:38Speaker 04

  That's exactly the reverse of the figures when John Senior was born. There had been a revolution in medicine. Things like X-rays, antibiotics, and sterile surgeries made hospitals important like never before. Childbirth and abortions were theoretically safer than ever.

• 40:56Speaker 00

  And so abortion too is increasingly going to be done in the hospital. And this, this really changes things.

• 41:05Speaker 04

  Many OB-GYN doctors moved into hospitals where they had a lot more oversight. And hospital administrators

• 41:11Speaker 03

  Who are worried about violating state laws and getting sued.

• 41:15Speaker 04

  Formed abortion review committees.

• 41:17Speaker 00

  That would review whether an abortion Was medically justifiable or not.

• 41:22Speaker 04

  And they made it really hard for a woman's abortion request to get approved.

• 41:26Speaker 03

  Women are subject to multiple exams, usually by both psychiatrists, obstetricians, and then often three other physicians. This is an era when many women don't have health insurance. Certainly when there aren't federal programs to help women pay for these services.

• 41:46Speaker 04

  Certified OB-GYN doctors who would have done abortions before were terrified of getting caught now, especially because this shift in medicine collided with another massive change.

• 41:58Speaker 05

  Babies all over the map.

• 42:07Speaker 03

  After World War II, we had the baby boom, and there was enormous pressure put on American women to have children.

• 42:13Rund Abdelfatah?

  During the Second World War, women had staffed jobs in factories and other parts of society as the men went off to battle. When the men came back...

• 42:22Speaker 03

  You like to cook, don't you, Ted? Well, it's accomplishing something.

• 42:26Rund Abdelfatah?

  Women were pressured to return into the home and to have children.

• 42:30Speaker 00

  Get married, have children, and live with a white picket fence.

• 42:35Rund Abdelfatah?

  And abortion was at odds with this. City officials, motivated by the social messaging of the time and looking for ways to boost their public profile in the face of growing racial tensions and accusations of corruption...

• 42:48Speaker 03

  Begin enforcing these laws that have been on the books.

• 42:55Speaker 00

  They start to go after people who've been practicing for 10, 20 years, and they raid them.

• 43:05Speaker 03

  So we see an explosion of the illegal marketplace for abortion in the 1940s and 1950s.

• 43:14Speaker 03

  You're thrown underground and into the shadows.

• 43:25Rund Abdelfatah?

  As the illegal marketplace flourishes, a whole host of people fill that vacuum. Some doctors risked losing their license to practice, risked going to jail, and continued providing abortions to women in secret. But The vast majority of women sought to self abort.

• 43:45Speaker 06

  I heard people throwing themselves downstairs or drinking Clorox or, you know, various kinds of poisons. There were women who died in motel rooms, sitting on top of clumps of towels. People coming home and finding daughters dead in bathtubs, bleeding out. Coming home and finding wives on the top of dining room tables having used hangers and things like that.

• 44:13Speaker 02

  Many women of all social classes, many women of color were getting abortions. The real story here is the difference in outcomes.

• 44:23Speaker 04

  If you had the means, which usually meant you were an upper-middle-class white woman, you could pay off someone with a little more training to do the abortion.

• 44:33Speaker 02

  You know, it was African-American women who were most likely to end up in the clutches of the so-called back alley butchers.

• 44:42Speaker 04

  This is Carol Joffe.

• 44:44Speaker 02

  I'm a professor at the University of California, San Francisco.

• 44:49Speaker 04

  It's hard to pinpoint exactly how many illegal abortions were being carried out in this period. Estimates range from 200,000 to 1.2 million per year. There was a cone of silence around it. Many women were too afraid to talk about their experiences, fearing both legal and social consequences.

• 45:08Speaker 06

  We have to remember what it was like in the 1950s and the 1960s and the shame that was brought about by being a single mother. Women were not supposed to have babies out of wedlock. They were not supposed to divorce their husbands if they experienced domestic violence. I mean, it was legal to rape your wife. So in the United States, we're talking about a time in which state's laws protected men who raped their wives.

• 45:36Rund Abdelfatah?

  More and more women like Joan Lester were showing up in emergency rooms with infections and injuries caused by botched abortions.

• 45:45Speaker 00

  Day, hundreds, coming in on the weekends.

• 45:48Rund Abdelfatah?

  Doctors and medical students were scrambling to help them all.

• 45:51Speaker 00

  And they're holding their hands while they bleed and die. And this just is, for many people, is intolerable.

• 46:00Rund Abdelfatah?

  Abortions, if done in sterile conditions by a trained professional, were rarely deadly at this point. But the illegal marketplace was creating an epidemic.

• 46:10Speaker 00

  So that drives a lot of doctors to support the decriminalization because they personally know what the results are. And they see it as a public health problem.

• 46:27Speaker 04

  Doctors teamed up with like-minded lawyers and set out to reform abortion laws at the state level.

• 46:32Speaker 00

  And the hope is, you know, these doctors will be able to perform more of abortions that they think are necessary.

• 46:42Speaker 04

  In cases where women had been raped or the menstrual or physical health of the fetus was at risk. A group of doctors had been responsible for getting laws against abortion rights on the books. And now, doctors were on the other side of the fight, pushing to get those same laws off the books. More than a dozen states passed reform laws in the late 1960s and early 70s. And four states legalized abortion outright: New York, Alaska, Washington, and Hawaii.

• 47:12Speaker 04

  Almost immediately as states revised their laws, anti-abortion activists began to mobilize.

• 47:19Speaker 04

  And most of them were Catholic. So they were really the only stalwart opponents to abortion. On and off for centuries, the Catholic Church had declared all abortion murder. And in the 1960s, a movement began to form around that idea.

• 47:36Rund Abdelfatah?

  At this time, as the movement is emerging, would they have been self-identifying as anti-abortion or pro-life? They would have used the language, the descriptor, "pro-life." Catholics who were coming out of anti-war activism, civil rights activism, anti-nuclear proliferation activism.

• 47:56Speaker 04

  They believed that life should be protected from conception to death. So they opposed the death penalty. They supported a more generous welfare state to enable women to be able to support families. They saw all of this as a part of a broader movement to protect life at all stages, a quote, "pro-life movement."

• 48:16Rund Abdelfatah?

  But outside of this Catholic opposition, the pushback to these reform laws was minimal. Mainline Protestant institutions even came out in support of expanding access to abortion, seeing firsthand the toll of illegal abortions on women and their congregations.

• 48:33Speaker 03

  A new movement for women's liberation is launched, and once again protesters take to the street to support their demands for total freedom, economically, politically, socially.

• 48:46Rund Abdelfatah?

  In the 1960s, the women's liberation movement began to advocate for what one organization called, quote, "true equal partnership with men."

• 48:55Speaker 03

  Equal rights to have a job, to have respect, to not be viewed as a piece of meat. We just want what men have had all these years.

• 49:02Speaker 00

  Those of us like myself who were involved were just living and breathing, you know, liberation, liberation, liberation.

• 49:11Rund Abdelfatah?

  But pretty soon, the mostly white, mostly middle-class leaders of the movement shifted their focus. What is it you're pioneering? What do you want to say?

• 49:20Speaker 03

  The sexual revolution. I feel we're going into the, you know, beginning of an emotional revolution.

• 49:27Rund Abdelfatah?

  They wanted to get rid of the shame and silence that had surrounded women's bodies and sexuality for so long.

• 49:33Speaker 03

  It's, we don't just take our clothes off and say, "Look, I am nude," you know. We, it's all very natural.

• 49:39Rund Abdelfatah?

  Abortion became a top priority for the movement, and they encouraged women to speak out about their illegal abortion stories.

• 49:47Speaker 00

  And it was pretty shocking. It was shocking to me. I think it was shocking to everybody, how widespread this was. Respected professionals and mothers. Oh my God, they had an abortion? It really changed the conversation. What's so interesting is that so much of the feminist movement of that time in general was very focused on health and was very anti-

• 50:15Rund Abdelfatah?

  Thai doctor. There was a tremendous critique of gynecology. You know, the image of a woman in the stirrups became sort of this emblem of female passivity and male power. And suddenly, they found themselves on the same side as these doctors, forced to work with them whether they liked it or not. I have referred to them as, quote, uneasy allies. Who didn't always see eye to eye. It was a clash of style. Feminists wanted sweeping change. Some called for repeal of all laws restricting abortion. They were saying, we don't need to be told when it's appropriate to have an abortion by a doctor or anyone else.

• 50:59Rund Abdelfatah?

  It should be a private, personal decision.

• 51:02Speaker 04

  But some people who supported abortion rights worried that framing the issue within the context of the feminist movement and pushing a national agenda might create a backlash.

• 51:15Speaker 04

  So for the women who opposed abortion, beginning in the late 1960s, they understood the sexual revolution as a threat, a threat to the family, something that might cause men and women not to get married and have children in the orderly way that they should.

• 51:35Speaker 04

  They believed that they were suddenly being criticized as being stupid or being dupes for having that lifestyle. And there was a fear that abortion was just the beginning of the end of that lifestyle. That this is part of a moral decline wrought by the sexual revolution. Some of these women began joining the pro-life movement, a movement that was still in its infancy, a movement that was poised to enter a new era.

• 52:04Speaker 00

  Today, we find it the center of a gathering storm as women and men argue the question of abortion, the right to life or the woman's right to choose.

• 52:16Rund Abdelfatah?

  In 1970, while all this was happening, a small group of lawyers took on a case in Texas. The plaintiff, a woman named Norma McCorvey, who was listed as Jane Roe in court records to protect her identity. The defendant, Henry Wade, the district attorney of Dallas County, Texas, where Jane Roe lived. The issue? Jane Roe was pregnant with her third child and wanted an abortion on the grounds that it should always be a woman's right to choose. Under Texas law, abortions were only allowed when necessary to save a woman's life.

• 52:52Speaker 04

  By 1973, the case had made its way to the Supreme Court. Jane Roe had already had her child, but the stakes were much higher by then. If the court sided with Jane Roe, abortion would become legal nationwide.

• 53:10Speaker 06

  Good evening. In a landmark ruling, the Supreme Court today legalized abortions. Roe v. Wade was a 7 to 2 opinion. Five of those seven justices who struck down laws criminalizing abortion were Republican-appointed.

• 53:29Speaker 04

  The court ruled that the state could not regulate abortion in the first trimester at all. Only in the third trimester, once the fetus could live outside the womb, could states ban abortion entirely.

• 53:42Rund Abdelfatah?

  And the court stopped short of giving women total control over the decision. Quote, "The attending physician, in consultation with his patient, is free to determine, without regulation by the state, that, in his medical judgment, the patient's pregnancy should be terminated." Doctors remained a central part of the decision and at the heart of the issue. Still, this was a huge, sweeping change, and abortion was now legal in all 50 states.

• 54:16Speaker 06

  And everybody thought the problem was done.

• 54:21Speaker 06

  It wasn't.

• 54:26Speaker 06

  So what happened right after Roe?

• 54:33Rund Abdelfatah?

  What happened right after Roe? Check out our episode, "After Roe," to learn more.

• 54:48Speaker 04

  That's it for this week's show. I'm Ramtin Arablou.

• 54:51Rund Abdelfatah?

  I'm Randa Abdel Fattah, and you've been listening to Throughline from NPR.

• 54:55Speaker 04

  This episode was produced by me.

• 54:57Rund Abdelfatah?

  And me, and. Lawrence Wu. Lane Kaplan-Levinson.

• 55:01Speaker 05

  Julie Kane. Victor Ibevez.

• 55:03Speaker 00

  Anya Steinberg. Yolanda Sangwe.

• 55:06Speaker 04

  Casey Minor. Fact checking for this episode was done by Kevin Vokel.

• 55:11Rund Abdelfatah?

  Thank you to Turner Ross, Blaze Alder Ivanbrook, Lawrence Wu, Julie Kane, Benjamin Swift, Owen Perry, Sam Clegg, Shahir Khan, Eric Liu, and Bergen Hoff for their voiceover work. And a special thanks to Deb George for her editing support.

• 55:28Speaker 04

  Thanks to Sarah McCammon, Tamar Charney, and Anya Grunman.

• 55:32Rund Abdelfatah?

  This episode was mixed by Josh Newell. Music for this episode was composed by Ramtin and his band, Drop Electric, which includes.

• 55:39Speaker 00

  Anya Mizani. Navid Marvi.

• 55:42Speaker 04

  Sho Fujiwara. If you have an idea or like something you heard on the show, please write us at [email protected].

• 55:54Rund Abdelfatah?

  If you or someone you know may be considering suicide or is in crisis, call or text 988 to reach the Suicide and Crisis Lifeline. Thanks for listening.

• 56:05Speaker 00

  Stay tuned for the following announcements and messages from our sponsors.