Scientists Predict Loss Of Deep Snow In Most Of U.S.

Without climate action, the United States would only have snow cover high in the mountains by the end of the century.

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• 0:00Ira Flatow?

  Science Friday is supported by MathWorks, creator of MATLAB and Simulink software for technical computing and model-based design. MathWorks, accelerating the pace of discovery in engineering and science. Learn more at mathworks.com.

• 0:16Speaker 01

  Support for Science Friday comes from USA for UNHCR, the UN Refugee Agency. Here's a problem. How do you keep a house above freezing when the windows are gone and the power is out for 16 hours a day? In Ukraine this winter, the answer fits in a box. Reflective insulation, plastic sheeting to cover broken windows, draft blockers for the doors. Simple materials installed the same day a team arrives. Your gift delivers them, and until December 31st, it's matched. Donate at unrefugees.org/friday.

• 0:57Speaker 02

  Historically snowy places are likely to lose their deep snow in the next century.

• 1:02Speaker 03

  So it's not just a matter of, you know, missing out on a classic New Hampshire snowy winter. It's also, you know, it's going to affect all the people who live there year round.

• 1:12Speaker 02

  It's Friday, January 3rd, also known as Science Friday.

• 1:18Speaker 02

  I'm Sci-Fry producer Shoshana Buxbaum. The long-term snow forecast is not looking good. Researchers are projecting that by the end of the century, days where deep snow covers the ground will virtually disappear across the United States. Only places high up in the Rocky Mountains will maintain their snow cover. Here's Ira with that and other science news from this week.

• 1:40Ira Flatow?

  Joining me now to talk about that is Sophie Bushwick, senior news editor at New Scientist, based in New York. Sophie, welcome back. Happy New Year.

• 1:48Speaker 03

  Thank you. Happy 2025.

• 1:50Ira Flatow?

  Okay, this first story you brought us is some bad news having to do with snow. Tell me about that.

• 1:57Speaker 03

  Right, so there's a lot of parts of the US such as New England and the Midwest, where winter means snow, and they often have a snow cover on the ground of roughly 30 inches or more. That's what the researchers are referring to is deep snow. And that has implications for, you know, how water is stored, the risk of flooding, and a lot of ecosystems that live in the snowpack itself, or above it, or even below it. And researchers were trying to figure out what was going to happen with all this snow with global warming, because you would think a warming means snow melts. Sometimes climate change actually leads to more precipitation. And so the researchers wanted to get a more detailed model to see

• 2:39Speaker 03

  what was actually going to happen. And what they found was if we continue to emit carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases at the levels we are currently, snow is going to really melt away everywhere except really at the Rocky Mountains by 2100.

• 2:53Ira Flatow?

  Yeah, yeah, I guess the implications for animals, plants, and humans, as you say, are profound.

• 3:00Speaker 03

  That's right. There's a lot of small mammals that that live in the snow. You know, their fur changes color in the winter to match it, and they are going to either have to adapt or die out. We're not really sure what's going to happen for them. And then there's, of course, you know, the snow during the winter has effects on groundwater for the rest of the year. So it's not just a matter of, you know, missing out on a classic New Hampshire snowy winter. It's also, you know, it's going to affect all the people who live there year round.

• 3:28Ira Flatow?

  Right. Speaking of New Hampshire, that's bad news for the skiers, too.

• 3:31Speaker 03

  That's right. I mean, already ski resorts are, you know, having to make their own snow in some cases. And whenever the Olympics roll around, this topic comes up, because having snow is no longer something we can necessarily rely on, even in places that have historically, you know, had beautiful snowy winters.

• 3:48Ira Flatow?

  So New Hampshire will be like New Jersey.

• 3:50Speaker 03

  That's what one of the researchers said, and she didn't seem too pleased about it.

• 3:54Ira Flatow?

  All right, our next story is about ancient fashion. Researchers have uncovered a 2,800-year-old piece of clothing in the Netherlands. What makes this so special?

• 4:06Speaker 03

  It's really rare for textiles and fabric to survive such a long time. So this is really exciting because it tells us a little something about the kind of clothing that people were wearing in the Iron Age. And the only reason it got preserved is because the person who was buried in this garment was also buried with jewelry. And underneath the metal jewelry, these scraps of fabric were preserved, even though the body itself had decayed. But there was just enough fabric for researchers to look at it with imaging and molecular analysis and figure out what this cloth looked like.

• 4:41Ira Flatow?

  And how were they able to do this?

• 4:44Speaker 03

  So they used 3D imaging to look at the weave, and that told them what pattern it was. And they think it was a pattern of plaid called shepherd's check. And then they used molecular analysis to look at what was used to dye the individual threads. And it looks like there was a red dye made from insects, which is sort of what we still use for some red dyes today. And then there was another blue dye that probably came from a plant. And so they think that there is this red and blue checked pattern on this fabric, based on the molecular analysis and on the 3D imaging.

• 5:21Ira Flatow?

  Always impressed what they can do with these kinds of things. Our next story focuses on something a bit more recent, an error in a 60-year-old mathematical proof. Tell us what the error was and how did mathematicians discover it?

• 5:36Speaker 03

  This is an error that they found by accident. So researchers were trying to translate a famous proof of Fermat's Last Theorem into computer language so that computers could check the work instead of relying on other mathematicians to do it. And the thing about this proof is it is super complicated and it uses little pieces of multiple fields of mathematics. So when they were looking at one particular field called crystalline cohomology, they found that someone who had written this proof in 1965 had forgotten a symbol between one line and another.

• 6:11Ira Flatow?

  Just one symbol?

• 6:12Speaker 03

  Just one symbol, and that made the entire proof invalid. And if this proof is invalid, that makes all the other proofs that rely on it invalid too, because so much else has been built on top of this foundation.

• 6:23Ira Flatow?

  Yeah, it reminds me of my old days in computer programming when I used to do punch cards back in the 60s and you left a period out, the whole thing wouldn't run.

• 6:31Speaker 03

  Yeah, it falls apart.

• 6:32Ira Flatow?

  Yeah. Well, were the mathematicians able to fix this error?

• 6:37Speaker 03

  Yes. Yes. Luckily, this particular problem was a pretty small one, and there were other separate proofs of the same thing that this researcher had proven with the error proof. So they were able to find another way around it that they were still able to use this. It doesn't invalidate, you know, decades of mathematical work or anything, but it does show the importance of you gotta check your work, you know, in, in even, even in elementary school math, you know, it's very easy to forget one step and then screw up the whole answer. And so it's the same in, you know, professional advanced mathematics as well.

• 7:12Ira Flatow?

  Well, if there was one simple error that really messed it all up, might there be other mistakes yet to be uncovered?

• 7:19Speaker 03

  Yeah, that's, I mean, and that takes us back to the reason the researchers were translating these proofs into computer readable language in the first place. They, they want to make it possible for computers to check the work of mathematicians so that they'll be able to catch mistakes like this when they happen and to, to let, to let mathematicians go on and fix it sooner in the process instead of waiting for decades.

• 7:41Ira Flatow?

  Oh, so this will happen when they digitized all that math they were able to find?

• 7:44Speaker 03

  That's right. It's a process they call formalization, which is gonna, you know, it, it, there's a lot of math, there's a lot of math history, there's a lot of equations to translate into a machine readable language.

• 7:55Ira Flatow?

  All right. Let's, uh, let's tell our listeners not to blink or you might miss this story. Sorry. At One Dad Joker Show, scientists have uncovered a new reason for blinking other than clearing your eyes. It might actually give you a bit of a cognitive break. What is that all about, Sophie?

• 8:13Speaker 03

  This is an experiment that I love because they basically took some subjects, gave them an Agatha Christie novel and had them read this novel while having their eyes recorded to track when they blink and what part in the text they're reading when they blink. And what they found is people are much more likely to blink with after reading an unfamiliar word or a word just that occurs less frequently in the text. And they're also more likely to blink when they hit a comma or a period, and especially if a sentence ends at the end of the line, they're more likely to blink then.

• 8:46Ira Flatow?

  I wonder if this might be expanded to meeting people and talking with them and suddenly you start blinking, you know, because.

• 8:52Speaker 03

  Maybe, maybe. So what they think is that this is sort of like your brains going through a little extra cognitive work to identify that left frequent word, or it sees a natural break caused by punctuation, and you blink to sort of give yourself a break, this like micro rest for your brain to, uh, to help it, you know, solidify that information.

• 9:13Ira Flatow?

  So blinking is not random. It's sort of a suggesting a cognitive process going on here.

• 9:18Speaker 03

  Absolutely, absolutely. And it makes you wonder, you know, should I be blinking more when I'm studying? Should I be? I think the problem is if you pay too much attention to your blinking, then that probably just increases your cognitive load. But I mean, it's a thought.

• 9:30Ira Flatow?

  Right. No more excuse to have something in my eye anymore. Our final story is about another sense, and I'm talking about hearing and in dolphins, new research suggests that dolphin teeth might be helping them hear. Tell me about that.

• 9:46Speaker 03

  This is really cool. Researchers looked at the jaw anatomy of different dolphin species, and then they also compared that to pigs. And what they found was when you're looking at a dolphin jaw, its tooth is sort of set a little bit more loosely in the jaw, and it's also in this spongy socket. So the socket that holds it is a little bit more porous and spongy than you would find in a pig or another land mammal. Plus, there's nerves, these thick, long bundles of nerve fibers attached to the teeth through those structures. So the researchers think what could be happening is sound waves in the water are transmitted to the teeth and from there to the brain where it can be translated into sound.

• 10:26Ira Flatow?

  So the teeth sort of vibrate, right?

• 10:29Speaker 03

  Yes, exactly. And you know, something kind of similar happens if you think, if you've ever tried out bone conduction headphones, which, yeah, there's those headphones that sort of, they transmit sound waves through your bone, hence the name, through your skull. And this is a sort of similar idea that this, this hard tooth or bone is able to, to pick up these vibrations and send them to the brain.

• 10:50Ira Flatow?

  Any way that we can actually prove this? I mean, this is a theory now, right? Can it be tested?

• 10:55Speaker 03

  That's right. I mean, and it's also possible that there's some other sense that the fiber is carrying. It's not necessarily the sound information that's being sent through those fibers. But, um, they, they would probably have to look at living dolphins and test their hearing and their teeth in that way.

• 11:12Ira Flatow?

  Well, always great stuff you bring us, Sophie.

• 11:15Speaker 03

  Thank you.

• 11:15Ira Flatow?

  Sophie Bushwick, senior news editor at New Scientist, based in New York City. And finally, a personal note. One day in the mid-1980s, I was taping a TV show in St. Paul, and the director yelled, "Cut." And onto the set walked Jimmy Carter, approaching me, exclaiming, "I just couldn't come to town and not say hello." I was flabbergasted. I had no idea he was a fan of my work or knew who I was, but I certainly knew of him because as a reporter in Washington in the 1970s, I covered Carter's every science policy move, and there were many. He famously installed solar panels on the White House, symbolizing his commitment to renewable energy.

• 11:57Ira Flatow?

  He championed energy conservation, asked us all to pitch in by turning down the thermostats and wearing a sweater. He created a standard to make more fuel-efficient cars and set the speed limit at 55. In Colorado, Carter established the first federal facility for solar energy research, and his White House created an act to preserve millions of acres of pristine land in Alaska. Carter was also one of the few presidents schooled in science, math, and engineering, and he put that knowledge toward helping others by establishing a Commission on Excellence in Education to improve science and math in American schools. We will remember Jimmy Carter, of course, as a true humanitarian, but he was also prescient

• 12:42Ira Flatow?

  about the importance of science to our well-being. Guided by principles, knowledge, and compassion, Carter had the long, impactful life he deserved, and our country is better for it.

• 12:57Speaker 02

  That's just about all the time we have for today. Lots of folks helped make the show happen, including

• 13:02Speaker 04

  Jordan Smudgic Rasha Reedy

• 13:04Speaker 05

  Charles Burgquist

• 13:06Speaker 02

  Danielle Johnson Next week, we'll check in with scientists about what they've learned from one of the longest-running community science projects in the world: 125 years of Christmas bird counts. I'm Sci-Fry producer Shoshana Buckspahn. Have a great weekend.