American Revolution | Saratoga | 4

In 1777, as Americans sought the support of France, Benjamin Franklin struggled to convince officials in Paris to form a military alliance with the new United States. Meanwhile, British General John Burgoyne planned a grand strategy to crush the rebellion by conquering the Hudson River Valley. That summer, his troops fought the Continental Army in a battle that would turn the tide of the American Revolution. But late that year, American forces faced a winter of peril as George Washington led his exhausted army into quarters at Valley Forge, where the soldiers endured disease, freezing conditions, and the threat of starvation. See Privacy Policy at https://art19.com/privacy and California Privacy Notice at https://art19.com/privacy#do-not-sell-my-info.

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• 0:00Lindsay Graham?

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• 0:17Lindsay Graham?

  Imagine it's June 1777. The afternoon sun bears down on you as you stand in an open field beside a river in Unadilla, New York. You're a Mohawk leader and you're meeting with your old neighbor, Patriot General Nicholas Herkimer. One hundred of your warriors lurk in the forest, but Herkimer has brought 400 militiamen with him in a clear show of force. Herkimer steps forward, extending his hand. It's good to see you again. You grip his hand firmly and narrow your gaze. Is it? Of course. As you well know, I've long admired the Indians. Some of them are my closest friends, and I've come today in the name of peace. Peace? And yet you bring hundreds of armed men with you, men who would delight in the chance to kill me.

• 1:02Lindsay Graham?

  Herkimer's jaw tightens, and the warmth drains from his expression. Well, they're here as a precaution. It's time you stop raiding settlements up and down the valley. All the stolen cattle, the families driven off their land. Make peace with us, or better yet, fight by our side. I've already chosen my path. My loyalty lies with the English king, as did my father's, my grandfather's. A king who lives an ocean away? What does he care about your future? Join us. We're fighting for the blessings of liberty, building a new nation, a new future. I'm fighting for a future as well, a future for my people. You Americans look at Mohawk land and see only what you can take. Your people's hunger will never be satisfied. And you think the British are different?

• 1:45Lindsay Graham?

  I know they are. When I traveled to London and met the king, he gave me his assurances that our lands will be secure under his rule. Herkimer takes a long breath, steadying himself. Look, I didn't come out here to fight. I don't want to go to battle with your people, and if you won't join us, then please just lay down your arms. Go home. Stay out of this war. This path can only lead to more bloodshed. You glance past him, toward the line of armed men standing in the field. If war comes to this valley, you should know, we will be ready.

• 2:20Lindsay Graham?

  Herkimer shakes his head and turns away, walking back to his militia. And as you watch him go, you feel a growing sense of certainty that the Americans will not rest until they have taken everything from you, that you must do all you can to stand in their way.

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• 4:15Lindsay Graham?

  From Audible Originals, I'm Lindsay Graham, and this is American History Tellers. Our history, your story.

• 4:37Lindsay Graham?

  In June 1777, Patriot General Nicholas Herkimer tried to persuade Mohawk leader Joseph Brant to stay out of the war with Britain. But Brant refused. Resentful of American encroachment on native land, he declared his loyalty to the Crown and cast his lot with the British Army. Later that summer, Herkimer and Brant would meet again in one of the bloodiest battles of the Revolutionary War. By 1777, the British had chased the Continental Army out of Manhattan and across New Jersey. Now, a large invasion force moved down from Canada with the goal of conquering the Hudson River Valley. A separate British force targeted Philadelphia, determined to capture the rebel capital.

• 5:19Lindsay Graham?

  And with the British striking on multiple fronts, the Continental Army faced a critical test. Many suspected that the Patriots could not hope to win the war without the aid of Britain's longtime rival, France, but only a major victory in the field would persuade France to enter the conflict. So late in the summer, the two armies converged in upstate New York for a battle that would turn the tide of the American Revolution. This is Episode 4: Saratoga.

• 5:49Lindsay Graham?

  In December 1776, 70-year-old Benjamin Franklin arrived in Paris on behalf of the Continental Congress, seeking to enlist France as an ally in the war against Britain. Almost immediately, he took French society by storm with his folksy demeanor and beaver fur cap. But he had his work cut out for him. He knew that the fight for independence would be lost unless he managed to secure French military aid. Franklin was betting on the fact that France had plenty of reason to want to seek revenge against Britain, their longstanding military and economic rival. Scarcely 14 years had passed since France suffered a bitter defeat in the French and Indian War and was forced to relinquish nearly all its North American territory to Britain.

• 6:31Lindsay Graham?

  And since the spring of 1776, the French had secretly provided 300,000 pounds of gunpowder and 30,000 muskets to the Continental Army, using a dummy corporation to smuggle the supplies into America. But Congress wanted a formal military alliance, one that would legitimize American sovereignty and provide the Continental Army with badly needed funds, manpower, and naval support. So soon after Franklin's arrival in Paris, he began meeting with the French Foreign Minister, the Comte de Vergennes. But Vergennes hesitated to agree to a formal alliance. The French and Indian War had depleted the French Treasury, and recent patriot defeats had done little to inspire confidence in the war effort.

• 7:12Lindsay Graham?

  Not only had the American invasion of Canada ended in disaster, but the British had driven Washington's army out of New York City in the fall of seventy-six. So Vergennes insisted that he could not sign a formal treaty until America's military situation improved, meaning in seventeen seventy-seven, Franklin's efforts and the entire fate of the revolution would depend on good news from the front. Soon enough, it would come. The Continental Army had just won a pair of surprise victories against enemy garrisons in Trenton and Princeton, New Jersey, and General George Washington was determined to maintain the momentum. So in early seventeen seventy-seven, while the Continental Army was camped in Morristown, New Jersey, Washington demanded new policies to strengthen the army.

• 7:56Lindsay Graham?

  Congress responded by raising the maximum punishment a soldier could receive from thirty-nine lashes to one hundred lashes, in an effort to improve discipline. But they also introduced longer enlistment terms, promising cash bonuses for soldiers who enlisted for three years, and one hundred acres of Indian land to anyone who served for the duration of the war. Seeing an opportunity, poor and propertyless men flocked to the army, including free black men. And with these new recruits flooding the camps, Washington had eleven thousand men under his command by the spring. An additional seventeen thousand men had joined the Continental Army's Northern Division in upstate New York. But meanwhile, the British were drawing up their own battle plans, determined to make a comeback after the losses at Trenton and Princeton.

• 8:41Lindsay Graham?

  British War Minister Lord George Germain described these as extremely mortifying. So in early seventeen seventy-seven, the British launched a grand new strategy to win the war, devised by General John Burgoyne. Known as Gentleman Johnny, Burgoyne was a popular playwright, a flamboyant man of fashion, and notorious gambler. And while on leave in London, he had convinced Lord Germain to let him lead a complex, three-pronged campaign to divide the former colonies. His goal was to isolate New England by taking control of the Hudson River Valley. He envisioned three forces converging on Albany, New York. First, Burgoyne himself would lead the main force from the north, starting in Canada and advancing down Lake Champlain and the Hudson River.

• 9:24Lindsay Graham?

  Second, Colonel Barry Sillinger would lead a smaller force from the west, rallying support from Indians living in the Mohawk Valley. And third, General William Howe would move his army from the south, sailing to Albany from New York City. After the three forces converged in Albany, the British would control the entire Hudson Valley. And with this vital region in their hands, they could divide the colonies and strangle the rebellion. Burgoyne was so confident in this plan that he bet a rival in Parliament that he would return victorious by Christmas. But while his strategy was sound in theory, it fell apart in execution. Burgoyne expected General Howe to join forces with him in Albany later that summer, but Howe had different plans in mind.

• 10:08Lindsay Graham?

  He wanted to capture Philadelphia, the capital of the new United States and its largest city, to crush the rebellion with a single decisive stroke. Lord Germain approved both plans, expecting Howe to take Philadelphia before supporting Burgoyne in Albany. But he failed to coordinate, and the result was that the two generals move forward with separate and conflicting strategies. Burgoyne began his push in June 1777, heading down Lake Champlain with a flotilla carrying more than 8,000 British and German soldiers. From the start, this army was weighed down by a massive baggage train, which included furniture, champagne, and formalware. But despite this burden, in early July, Burgoyne's army easily captured Fort Ticonderoga at

• 10:52Lindsay Graham?

  the southern end of the lake, dealing a heavy blow to patriot morale. But the rapid fall of Ticonderoga was followed by more setbacks for the British. Burgoyne decided to march overland to his next target, Fort Edward, on the edge of the Hudson River. But he underestimated the difficulty of moving his artillery and heavy baggage train through the dense wilderness. And patriot soldiers hindered their advance further by destroying bridges and felling trees in their path. It took Burgoyne 20 days to cover just 22 miles, and even then, he was still 50 miles away from Albany. But despite his slow progress, Burgoyne remained optimistic, confident that Colonel Sillinger and General Howe were coming to his aid from the west and south. He had no idea that Howe was focused on his own agenda.

• 11:41Lindsay Graham?

  Imagine it's mid-July 1777 in New York City. You're a general in the British Army, serving as second-in-command to William Howe. You're seated in the dining room of the mansion Howe is using for his headquarters. Today marks the third time this week that you've come to see him about his next campaign, but Howe is more interested in the roasted venison on his plate. Would you care for a glass of Madeira? I just had it shipped in. Howe signals to the footman to pour you a glass, but you wave him off. No, thank you. I'm in no mood to drink. I think you know my reason for coming. I beg you to do away with this plan to take Philadelphia. It's time to send your army north to Albany. Oh, not this again. It's the only sensible move. I'm sorry, sir, but you have your priorities wrong.

• 12:25Lindsay Graham?

  When Lord Germain approved Burgoyne's campaign, it was understood that your army would join the others in Albany. Howe takes a deep sip of wine.

• 12:35Lindsay Graham?

  Need I remind you that when I introduced the idea of capturing Philadelphia, Germain made no objection to the proposal? That may have been true months ago, when Germain assumed you would capture Philadelphia in the spring. That would be plenty of time to head to Albany in the summer. But you've wasted all this time in New York playing cat and mouse with Washington. Now it's the middle of July, and if you insist on attacking Philadelphia, there will not be enough time to go to Albany. But really, who cares about Albany? Why divide the colonies piecemeal? If I can lure Washington to Philadelphia and take the seat of the rebel congress, I can end this war with a single stroke. Well, to be frank, I never liked Burgoyne's plan to begin with. Too many moving parts, if you ask me, but I do worry that if you don't come to his aid, his army will fall into serious trouble.

• 13:21Lindsay Graham?

  Howe swirls his glass of wine and shrugs. I gave London my plan. It was approved, and I will follow through with it. Besides, Burgoyne just captured Ticonderoga with no trouble. He'll be just fine. I truly hope you're right, general. Now if you'll excuse me.

• 13:38Lindsay Graham?

  You rise from your chair, and with a curtain on to Howe, you exit the dining room. It's not the first time Howe has ignored your advice, and you're sure it won't be the last. No matter the needs of the rest of the British Army, Howe is determined to be the general who wins this war.

• 13:57Lindsay Graham?

  On July 23rd, 1777, General Howe ignored the advice of his second-in-command Henry Clinton and left New York City for Philadelphia with 15,000 troops. When Washington heard that the British had sailed south and entered the Chesapeake Bay, he concluded that they were headed for Philadelphia and began rushing his army to the capital. It was not until August 3rd that Burgoyne finally received word that Howe would not be joining him in Albany. The southern arm of his plan had suddenly fallen away, but still Burgoyne stubbornly refused to abandon his campaign. Meanwhile, the western arm of the invasion was running into its own trouble in the Mohawk Valley. Colonel Barry Sillinger had joined forces with hundreds of Native American soldiers,

• 14:40Lindsay Graham?

  part of a powerful group of allied Indian nations called the Iroquois Confederacy. This alliance included many Mohawks and one of their leaders, Joseph Brandt. Brandt had been born into the Mohawk Nation, but after learning English and converting to Christianity, he spent his life moving between Native and British worlds. He served with the British in the French and Indian War and traveled widely among the Iroquois as a missionary and diplomat, gaining influence and mastering several Native languages. And when the Revolutionary War broke out, he urged the Iroquois Confederacy to support Britain, warning that American independence would threaten Native lands. He insisted that the Patriots began the rebellion to be the sole masters of the continent.

• 15:22Lindsay Graham?

  Most Iroquois Indians sought to stay out of the war, but ultimately, the Oneida sided with the Americans, while many Mohawks and Senecas aligned with the British. These Native warriors would be integral to British strategy. In early August 1777, Colonel Sillinger laid siege to Fort Stanwix, a Patriot outpost guarding a vital trade route between the Hudson River and the Great Lakes. And when he learned that a nearby Patriot militia was marching to relieve the fort, he ordered Brandt to intercept them. On the morning of August 6th, Brant and his men set a trap. Roughly 400 Mohawk and Seneca warriors and dozens of loyalist volunteers took position in a marshy ravine near Oriskany, a settlement a few miles from the fort.

• 16:06Lindsay Graham?

  When the Patriot militiamen and their Oneida allies filed down the slopes of the ravine, Brant's force struck without warning, ambushing them with tomahawks, clubs, and scalping knives. Desperate hand-to-hand combat left 400 Patriots and 30 of their Oneida allies dead. On the British side, 100 were killed or wounded, most of them Indians. And the Iroquois soldiers had rarely experienced warfare with such high casualty rates. The slaughter at Oriskany, one of the bloodiest battles of the Revolution, caused many to reconsider their alliance with the British. One woman recalled, "The mourning was excessive and was expressed by the most doleful yells, shrieks, and howlings." The battlefield became known as "Place of Great Sadness" among the Iroquois.

• 16:51Lindsay Graham?

  But despite the loss of reinforcements at Oriskany, the Patriots continued clinging onto Fort Stanwix until another relief mission arrived, this time led by Major General Benedict Arnold. Though he was outnumbered, Arnold spread rumors that a much larger American force was approaching, which convinced Brant to withdraw his warriors. And without support from his Indian allies, Sillinger was forced to abandon the siege. He and his men retreated to Lake Ontario, marking the collapse of the Western Arm of Burgoyne's plan. Making matters worse for the British, as Burgoyne's troops continued trudging south toward Albany, their supply line was stretched dangerously thin. To gather new provisions, Burgoyne ordered part of his force to seize a Patriot's supply depot in Bennington, Vermont.

• 17:36Lindsay Graham?

  But they were met by roughly 2,000 Americans, who killed or captured nearly 1,000 of Burgoyne's men. In a single day, he lost 10% of his entire army. So while Burgoyne was growing weaker, his enemy was only getting stronger. In August, Horatio Gates, the new commander of the Continental Army's Northern Department, gathered 8,500 Patriot soldiers and militiamen near the village of Saratoga. Sensing his chance, he readied his troops to deal Burgoyne a final blow.

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• 19:47Lindsay Graham?

  On August 24, 1777, George Washington paraded his 12,000-man army through the streets of Philadelphia. After rushing troops there in anticipation of the arrival of William Howe's army, Washington decided to stage a grand spectacle to reassure residents that the city could be defended. He also hoped that a show of strength would help sway hearts and minds. Even though Philadelphia was the seat of the Continental Congress, the local population was deeply divided. Philadelphia was home to many loyalists, as well as a large community of Quakers who declared themselves neutral due to their religious commitment to pacifism. So the residents of Philadelphia had mixed reactions as they watched Washington ride at the head of the column on his white horse, his soldiers marching twelve abreast

• 20:32Lindsay Graham?

  behind him to the beat of a fife and drum. Riding by his side was the Marquis de Lafayette, a nineteen-year-old French aristocrat and newly-appointed major-general in the Continental Army. Idealistic and hungry for glory, Lafayette had fled a life of boredom to join the war, financing his own voyage to America. He had yet to prove himself in battle, but he brought wealth, supplies, and connections at the French court. Recognizing his diplomatic value, Washington added the teenage general to his staff and his inner circle of aides. But Washington's parade wasn't all for show. The British were still bearing down. The day after the parade in Philadelphia, fifty miles to the southwest, British General

• 21:14Lindsay Graham?

  Howe landed his fifteen-thousand-man army in northern Maryland, following five punishing weeks at sea. Rough weather and shifting winds had delayed the voyage and caused food shortages, forcing the soldiers to get by on spoiled rations. So after letting the troops rest for a few days, Howe began marching them through the Pennsylvania countryside, where he hoped to lure Washington into a major battle. For his part, Washington was just as eager for a decisive confrontation. Rallying his troops, he declared, "Now is the time for our most strenuous exertions. One bold stroke will free the land from the rapid devastations and burnings." But he also reminded them that anyone who fled would be shot, while issuing extra rations of rum to steady the soldiers' nerves.

• 21:58Lindsay Graham?

  To block the British advance, Washington positioned his army along Brandywine Creek, a natural line of defense thirty miles southwest of Philadelphia. He concentrated the bulk of his forces at a crossing point known as Chad's Ford, believing Howe would mount his main assault there. It was a decision that proved fatal. With the help of local loyalists, Howe learned that Washington had failed to station troops at two Fords further north. So on the foggy morning of September 11th, Howe began advancing his army. He sent a third of his force to Chad's Ford as a distraction, while marching the rest around the American lines to surprise them from the rear. After heavy fighting, the Americans suffered a thousand casualties.

• 22:41Lindsay Graham?

  Washington was forced to withdraw his army to safety, leaving the road to Philadelphia wide open. The British met little resistance as they marched into the capital on September 26, their military bands playing "God Save the King" to herald their arrival. And as the British descended on Philadelphia, the Continental Congress fled the city. But after reconvening in a county courthouse in York, Pennsylvania, the delegates poured their energies into resuming debates on the Articles of Confederation, the blueprint for the nation's first central government. Heated arguments over taxation, representation, and state autonomy had made the process agonizingly slow. But the fall of Philadelphia added new urgency, because the delegates were acutely aware

• 23:25Lindsay Graham?

  that the loss of the capital could undermine Benjamin Franklin's efforts in Paris unless they could show the French that they could bind the thirteen former colonies together under a functioning government. Still, they feared recreating the very tyranny they were fighting to escape. So by design, the Articles created a weak central authority. Congress had no power to levy taxes, and having rebelled against British taxation, the states were reluctant to grant that power to any central body. Instead, Congress was forced to rely on the states for voluntary contributions, and the lack of reliable revenue would hinder the war effort as time wore on. At the same time, despite having Congress on the run, the British were no closer to winning the war.

• 24:07Lindsay Graham?

  They held Philadelphia, New York, and Newport, Rhode Island, but control of three cities was a far cry from conquering the entire country and its people. Still, General John Burgoyne believed he could accomplish this goal by isolating New England from the rest of the colonies. So in the fall of 1777, he pressed forward with his plan to seize control of the strategically vital Hudson River Valley, even without the help of forces under General Howe and Colonel Barry Sillinger. In mid-September, Burgoyne's reduced army crossed the Hudson River near Saratoga, New York. Nine miles to the south, Patriot General Horatio Gates had entrenched his troops on Bemis Heights, a series of bluffs rising 200 feet above the Hudson River.

• 24:50Lindsay Graham?

  These fortifications epitomized Gates' approach to warfare. A cautious commander who preferred to rely on strong defensive positions, he clashed with the more aggressive officers under his command, none more so than Benedict Arnold. Arnold thrived in the chaos of battle and had shown bold, intuitive leadership in the capture of Fort Ticonderoga, the grueling march to Quebec, and his brave defense of Lake Champlain. But despite his impressive record and a recommendation from General Washington, earlier in 1777, Congress had passed Arnold over for a promotion. Now, as Burgoyne's army crept toward the American lines, Arnold was desperate to burnish his reputation by taking the offensive.

• 25:35Lindsay Graham?

  Imagine it's the morning of September 19th, 1777, near Saratoga, New York. You're a major general in the Continental Army, and you've rushed into the headquarters of General Horatio Gates. You run into the study where Gates sits behind a desk, deep in conversation with another officer. General Gates. He looks up at you with irritation. What is it now? Your eyes dart to the window, toward the direction of the British lines. General, the army is marching toward us. Our scouts on the Hudson have spotted several columns approaching. This is the moment we've been preparing for. Allow me to send riflemen to the woods next to Freeman's Farm to meet the British head-on, before they have a chance to breach our defenses. Gates shares a knowing look with the other officer before returning his gaze to you. And why should I?

• 26:20Lindsay Graham?

  Our army is well-supplied, while Burgoyne is running out of provisions. No, we will delay as long as possible. Oh, sir, you're playing right into Burgoyne's hand. I'm certain that he's counting on you to be cautious. Better cautious than reckless. I want this army safe behind our barricades. If I force them to fight in exposed lines down at Freeman's Farm, I may as well be sending them to the slaughter. Sir, it would be foolish to wait around for the British to roll their cannons toward us and start bombing our defenses. Our forces will be destroyed by their superior artillery. I have my doubts about that. I say let them try. You groan and start pacing the floor, determined to wear him down. Please, sir, we cannot allow the British to get any closer. This is madness. Will you ever stop pestering me?

• 27:05Lindsay Graham?

  No, not until you see reason. Gates throws up his hands in surrender. Fine, if it will get you to leave, I'll let you send out a reconnaissance force. Thank you, sir, you won't regret it.

• 27:19Lindsay Graham?

  Flushed with triumph, you rush out of the headquarters to gallop off to battle. You know you're right, and you're determined to make Gates see it. As far as you're concerned, the only thing standing in the way of victory is the caution of your superiors.

• 27:35Lindsay Graham?

  On September 19th, 1777, Burgoyne sent three columns of troops south toward Bemis Heights. Gates preferred to dig in behind their defenses, but Benedict Arnold begged him to engage the enemy directly. Finally, Gates gave in and let him march out with a company of Virginia riflemen, later joined by 300 light infantrymen. These Americans collided with the British at a 15-acre clearing known as Freeman's Farm in a fierce battle that raged all afternoon. One witness described how Arnold rode "in the front of the lines," his eyes flashing, pointing his sword at the enemy, a sight that electrified the line. During this battle, Arnold rode back to headquarters to ask Gates to send additional men, but Gates

• 28:17Lindsay Graham?

  refused, and without reinforcements, the Americans were forced to withdraw to Bemis Heights. At the end of the day, the British held the field, but it came at a staggering cost, nearly 600 casualties compared to 300 on the American side. Afterwards, Gates refused to credit Arnold's contributions in a report to Congress. The ultra-sensitive Arnold was outraged by the snub. He stormed into Gates' tent to confront him, and the two men got into a shouting match that ended with Gates stripping Arnold of his command and confining him to quarters. Then, on October 7th, Burgoyne launched a second attack against the American position in what became known as the Battle of Bemis Heights. And in the middle of this conflict, Arnold disobeyed orders by galloping into the fray,

• 29:02Lindsay Graham?

  leading American troops in a furious charge against the British. A fellow officer said that he behaved more like a madman than a cool and discreet officer. During this charge, a bullet shattered Arnold's thigh bone and struck his horse, who fell dead on top of him. But even as he lay trapped beneath the horse, he continued shouting orders to rally his men, and by nightfall, the British had lost another 600 soldiers and were forced to retreat. The next day, the British attempted to flee north, but heavy rain forced them to camp in the woods near Saratoga, and soon, the Americans had them surrounded. A British sergeant described how the Patriots swarmed around the Little Adversary Army like birds of prey. The British were trapped, with nowhere to hide from Patriot bullets and artillery.

• 29:46Lindsay Graham?

  One general remembered, the sick and wounded would drag themselves into a quiet corner of the woods and lie down to die on the damp ground. Not even here were they safe, since every little while, a ball would come crashing down among the trees. With no food, no sign of reinforcements, and no hope of escape, Burgoyne knew his army was doomed. A few days into the siege, he had no choice but to begin negotiating terms of surrender. A cold rain fell down on October 17th, as Burgoyne offered his sword to Gates in an official gesture of surrender. Afterwards, nearly 6,000 men were taken prisoner. As these defeated soldiers marched out, an American military band started playing Yankee Doodle,

• 30:28Lindsay Graham?

  which a British officer said was not a little mortifying to hear. This American victory at Saratoga was a turning point in the Revolutionary War. It restored faith in the patriot cause after the loss of Philadelphia, and paved the way for the urgently needed aid from France. When the news of the victory at Saratoga arrived in Paris in December, Benjamin Franklin was able to convince the French Foreign Minister that intervention was worth the risk. The French soon agreed to recognize the independence of the United States, and they offered to sign two treaties: one creating a military alliance, the other an agreement on friendship and trade. And ultimately, this French military support, funding, and naval power would transform the course of the war.

• 31:11Lindsay Graham?

  But for the time being, the fate of George Washington's army hung in the balance. As 1777 drew to a close, his ragged, hungry soldiers settled into winter quarters to regroup. Already worn down by battle, they now faced six months of unrelenting misery at a place called Valley Forge.

• 31:34Speaker 06

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• 33:25Lindsay Graham?

  In December 1777, George Washington led his army into winter quarters at Valley Forge, an exposed hilly landscape 20 miles northwest of Philadelphia. The main advantage of Valley Forge was its location. It was close enough to keep an eye on the British occupying Philadelphia, but far enough away to protect the army from a surprise attack, because Washington soldiers could hardly withstand another assault. The army arrived at Valley Forge battered and broken. Of 11,000 men, nearly 3,000 were declared unfit for duty. And despite the fact that they had been fighting for months, they had not been paid since August. Clothing shortages forced soldiers to recycle what was left of their dead comrades' uniforms, and rations were meager.

• 34:09Lindsay Graham?

  They went days with nothing to eat but baked mixtures of flour and water. Even worse, the open countryside offered little shelter, and the men were forced to build their own crude log huts. The army endured frostbite, gangrene, and hyperthermia, and contagious diseases like typhus, typhoid, and smallpox spread rapidly through the ranks. One army surgeon wrote in his diary, "I am sick, discontented, and out of humor. Poor food, hard lodging, cold weather, fatigue, nasty clothes, nasty cookery. Why are we sent here to starve and freeze?" In light of the army's suffering, Washington wrote to Congress at the end of December, informing them that 3,000 men were barefoot and otherwise naked.

• 34:53Lindsay Graham?

  He warned that without immediate supplies, the army would either starve, dissolve, or disperse. And to further emphasize the desperation in the ranks, he informed them of a dangerous mutiny that was only suppressed by the spirited exertions of his officers. But even as Washington begged Congress to save his troops, he faced criticism for withdrawing the army instead of trying to recapture Philadelphia. Critics noted that he had failed to win any victories comparable to Saratoga, with some members of Congress suggesting that Horatio Gates should replace him. But for now, it was still Washington's army, and to ease their hunger crisis, Congress advised Washington to commandeer food from the surrounding area. He delayed, fearing that foraging would alienate the local population,

• 35:38Lindsay Graham?

  but soon the mounting death toll left him with no other choice. By the end of winter, 2,500 men would die from starvation, disease, and exposure, with nearly half of the deaths occurring in February 1778 alone. So with the troops reaching their breaking point, the time had come for desperate measures.

• 36:00Lindsay Graham?

  Imagine it's a snowy morning in February 1778 in Chester County, Pennsylvania. You're a major general in the Continental Army, and you're leading a foraging party out on a search for livestock and other provisions. As you force open a barn door, a farmer comes running out of the adjacent house, still wearing his night clothes. What are you doing? Get out of there! You ignore him and step over the threshold, immediately spotting bales of hay piled in uneven stacks along the walls. Alright, boys, let's start gathering up this hay. As the soldiers get to work, you walk down the aisle. There's an old plow, and plenty of rusted tools, but no horses or cattle. You turn around to the farmer, who avoids your gaze. Where are your animals? I don't have any.

• 36:45Lindsay Graham?

  Then what are you doing with all this hay? Well, I had animals, but they got sick. They didn't survive the winter. You're lying. You walk back out the back door of the barn, the farmer following. And as you enter the woods behind the building, you find five cows tied up to trees. You approach one of them and start fumbling with the knot. They didn't survive, huh? We're requisitioning these for the army. You can't. Those cows are my livelihood. Our soldiers are starving at Valley Forge. The army needs the cattle more than you do. I can offer you a promissory note. You'll receive payment at a later date. I'm not interested in some meaningless scrap of paper. Well, I'm not gonna let you keep these cows just so you can bring them to Philadelphia to fatten the British Army. Well, at least the British pay.

• 37:30Lindsay Graham?

  You should be grateful, and you have a bed to sleep in and a roof over your head. My men have gone days at a time with no food at all, fighting a war for your freedom. Oh, damn you and your army. If this is how it's gonna be, maybe I won't even plant my fields this year. See how your soldiers fare when there's nothing left to take.

• 37:49Lindsay Graham?

  You take the cow by the rope and lead it back to your wagons. As you push past the farmer, he angrily kicks at the snow. But after the winter you've suffered, you have no sympathy left.

• 38:04Lindsay Graham?

  In February 1778, General George Washington sent 1,500 men out from Valley Forge to scour the countryside for provisions. He issued appeals to New England governors, and he also urged local farmers to fatten their cattle and sell them to the army, promising to pay them at a later date. Washington appointed Nathaniel Greene as quartermaster general to organize logistics. But much to Greene's frustration, farmers often hid horses and cattle from the foraging parties in the hopes of selling them to the British in Philadelphia. And when these farmers protested, Greene brushed off their complaints, telling Washington, "They cry out and beset me from all quarters, but like Pharaoh, I harden my heart. I am determined to forage the country very bare.

• 38:47Lindsay Graham?

  Nothing shall be left unattempted." And by March, through the relentless efforts of Greene and Washington, herds of seized cattle and sheep began arriving at Valley Forge, along with wagons carrying uniforms, weapons, and essential supplies. As these provisions flowed in, so too did new recruits and returning soldiers. So Washington decided it was time to give his men formal military training to help them overcome their weaknesses on the battlefield. To accomplish this, he turned to Friedrich von Steuben, a Prussian officer and self-styled Baron, who had arrived in Valley Forge at the end of winter with a commission from Congress. While Prussia was officially neutral, von Steuben was one of several Prussian military officers who offered their services to the patriot cause.

• 39:32Lindsay Graham?

  And despite his limited knowledge of English and his famously volatile temper, he brought valuable, professional military experience. Von Steuben began by personally drilling a hundred-man model company, using aides to translate his shouted commands. These soldiers then taught the rest of their regiments. The troops learned efficient marching, maneuvering, and bayonet tactics, but they also learned to take pride in their service. By spring, morale had risen and the threat of desertion and mutiny had subsided. In just two months, Baron Von Steuben had managed to mold the patchwork of regiments into a unified, professional army. And there was more cause for celebration in May of 1778, when the patriots finally learned that Benjamin

• 40:14Lindsay Graham?

  Franklin had secured an alliance with France. Washington reflected, "This great, glorious news must put the independence of America out of all manner of dispute." But French intervention also forced the British to expand their view of the war. The thirteen former colonies were just one part of the far-flung British Empire. And now, with France involved, the revolution became a global war. Britain would need to defend all its holdings, not just in North America, but in the Caribbean, Asia, and Africa, where France competed for influence. And with this in mind, in June 1778, British peace commissioners arrived in Philadelphia to negotiate an end to the war with an offer of self-rule within the

• 40:56Lindsay Graham?

  British Empire. This was exactly what Americans had asked for in 1775, but from their perspective, too much time had passed and too much blood had been shed. Congress rejected the offer. They would accept nothing less than full independence. But along with this diplomatic overture, British officials decided on a change in military leadership too. They sent Sir Henry Clinton to Philadelphia to replace William Howe as commander-in-chief. Wary of the French fleet, Clinton evacuated Philadelphia on June 18th to concentrate British forces in New York City, a more defensible and strategically vital location. The very next day, Washington marched his army out of Valley Forge to follow the British north.

• 41:39Lindsay Graham?

  On June 28th, the Patriots attacked the rear of the British march at Monmouth Courthouse in New Jersey. After brutal fighting in blazing heat, the battle ended in a draw with both sides claiming victory. But the newly-disciplined Continental Army had proved themselves equal to the British. Even a British officer admitted that the Patriots had dealt his army a handsome flogging. The Army's performance at Monmouth also silenced Washington's critics. The president of the Continental Congress wrote to Washington with high praise for his leadership in the battle, predicting that Washington's name would be revered by posterity. The Battle of Monmouth also helped crystallize Washington's growing understanding that he didn't need to defeat his enemy outright.

• 42:21Lindsay Graham?

  Instead, to sustain the revolution, he simply needed to keep his army from being destroyed. Monmouth would be the last major battle in the North. And as the war dragged on, the focus shifted to the South, where the British hoped to exploit the support of Southern loyalists. And to counter the British, the Patriots looked to French aid to carry them to victory. But hopes of a quick resolution faded as all sides faced the threat of a grinding war of attrition. From Audible Originals, this is episode four of our six-part series on the American Revolution from American History Tellers. In the next episode, Continental Army soldiers lead a brutal campaign of terror against Iroquois villages.

• 43:02Lindsay Graham?

  General Washington struggles to sustain his army in the face of mutiny, economic despair, and shocking betrayal. And civil war erupts in the South Carolina countryside, pitting neighbor against neighbor. American History Tellers is only possible because of listeners like you, so thank you. And don't miss an episode. Be sure to follow American History Tellers on Audible or wherever you get your podcasts. Audible subscribers can binge new seasons of American History Tellers early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts. And to find out more about me, including my other podcasts, my live show, the history

• 43:43Lindsay Graham?

  tours I'm arranging, and all sorts of other things, go to historyishuman.com. That's historyishuman.com.

• 43:52Lindsay Graham?

  American History Tellers is hosted, edited, and produced by me, Lindsay Graham, for Airship. This episode is written by Ellie Stanton, edited by Dorian Marina. Senior producers Alida Rosansky and Andy Herman. Managing producer Desi Blalock. Audio editing by Mohamed Shazib. Music by Thrum. Sound design by Molly Bach. Executive producer for Audible, Jenny Lauer Beckman. Head of creative development at Audible, Kate Nevin. Head of Audible Originals North America, Marshall Louis. Chief Content Officer, Rachel Gianns. Copyright 2026 by Audible Originals LLC. Sound recording copyright 2026 by Audible Originals LLC.

• 44:51Lindsay Graham?

  By 1779, Benedict Arnold had sacrificed more for the revolution than almost any other man in America. One of George Washington's most effective commanders, he had nearly lost a leg in the Second Battle of Saratoga. But in return, Arnold believed he had been humiliated by Congress and cheated of his glory by lesser men. So he decided to make them pay. Hi, I'm Lindsay Graham, the host of the podcast American Scandal. We bring to life some of the biggest controversies in US history: presidential lies, environmental disasters, corporate fraud. In our latest series, Benedict Arnold turns his back on his comrades in the Continental Army and secretly defects to the British. With the help of his wife, he plots to hand over the most important colonial fortress to the

• 45:35Lindsay Graham?

  enemy and doom the revolution he once served. Follow American Scandal wherever you get your podcasts. Audible subscribers can binge all episodes of American Scandal early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts.