Medieval Sex Work

Despite Christianity coming in hot and heavy in the medieval period, sex work was thriving. In many places it was legal, even. In this second episode in our mini-series exploring sex work through history, Kate is joined by the legend of sex worker history, Ruth Karras. What did a medieval brothel look like? How did sex workers dress? And why does the word 'spinster' mean sex worker? This episode was edited and produced by Stuart Beckwith. The senior producer was Charlotte Long. Sign up to History Hit for hundreds of hours of original documentaries, with a new release every week and ad-free podcasts. Sign up at https://www.historyhit.com/subscribe. You can take part in our listener surveyhere https://www.surveymonkey.co.uk/r/6FFT7MK. All music from Epidemic Sounds. Betwixt the Sheets: History of Sex, Scandal & Society is a History Hit podcast. Voting is now open for the Listener's Choice Award at this year's Podcast Awards! UK & Ireland listeners please place your vote on the Spotify mobile app here: https://open.spotify.com/s/xhg6PJa Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy https://acast.com/privacy for more information.

Speaker names marked ? are inferred from speaking time and the show’s known hosts — they are not voice-verified.

• 0:00Kate Lister?

  Do you want even more shocking and scandalous history? Like why the ancient Greek statues had such small manhoods? Or what went on behind closed doors in the Georgian era? Well, sign up to History Hit, where you can see me discover the scandalous side of history, as well as hundreds of hours of original documentaries, plus new releases every week, covering everything from prehistoric Scotland to the Treaty of Versailles. Sign up to join me in locations around the world and explore the past. Just visit historyhit.com/subscribe.

• 0:37Speaker 01

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• 1:19Kate Lister?

  Hello, my lovely betwixters. It's me, Kate Lister. You're listening to Betwixt the Sheets. So if this isn't the podcast that you were hoping for, this is your chance to get out now. And if that doesn't convince you that you are now on risky territory, how about this? This is an adult podcast, spoken by adults to other adults, about adulty things in an adulty way, covering a range of adult subjects, and you should be an adult too. We are actually covering some seriously challenging territory, including sexual violence. So that is your extra fair dues warning to the fair dues warning. And if that doesn't convince you that this is a podcast to be handled delicately, then I don't know what will. Right, if there's anybody still listening, is anyone still out there? Okay, I'm still here. Let's get on with the show.

• 2:09Kate Lister?

  Have you ever been to a medieval brothel? I don't suppose you have. Well, today is your lucky day, listeners. It is 1407 and I have popped over to southern France where sex work was completely legal and brothels were licensed. That was actually the state of things across the medieval world. In this brothel, which is owned by a madam called Jeanette, we have got migrants, we've got citizens, we have got the local hoi polloi, all sitting round a large table, sharing food, wine, and, well, the local sex workers, all lit by a fabulously large iron candelabra. It's pretty vibey, I'm not gonna lie. Even the chief of police has stopped by,

• 2:54Kate Lister?

  unofficial business, I'm sure. How do we know about this establishment? How do we know what Jeanette kept in her brothel? Because she left us a list. And how do I know about this? Because today's guest is the GOAT of medieval sex work historians. So let's grab some wine and find out what life was like back then.

• 3:25Speaker 02

  What do you look for, madam?

• 3:26Speaker 03

  Oh, money, of course.

• 3:28Speaker 02

  You're supposed to rise when an adult speaks to you.

• 3:30Speaker 03

  I make perfect copies of whatever my boss needs by just turning him up and pushing the button.

• 3:43Speaker 04

  Yes, social courtesy does make a difference.

• 3:45Speaker 05

  Goodness, what beautiful time! Goodness has nothing to do with it, darling.

• 3:54Kate Lister?

  Hello and welcome back to Betwixt the Sheets, the history of sex scandal in society with me, Kate Lister. Sex in the medieval period was a funny one. That's putting it mildly. Mind it, it was weird wherever you went. It's pretty weird today, but the medieval people did have a certain flair all of their own. Very heavily influenced by Christian theology, but also quite permissive and a bit raunchy. How did this impact sex work? How was sex sold in the countryside as well as in the growing cities? Why did sex workers have to wear certain clothes to make them stand out? By law, by the way. Well, in this second episode of our brand new mini series, I am joined by the wonderful,

• 4:37Kate Lister?

  the marvellous Professor Ruth Karas, and she is going to take us betwixt the sheets of some medieval sex workers. Let's do it.

• 4:50Kate Lister?

  Hello and welcome back to Betwixt the Sheets. It's only Ruth Karas. How are you doing?

• 4:58Speaker 06

  I'm very well. I'm really happy to be back again. I had a good time last time.

• 5:02Kate Lister?

  I had so much fun and you are such a legend when it comes to this particular subject, medieval sexuality and medieval sex work. You are, as the kids would say, the OG, the original gangster.

• 5:16Speaker 06

  Yeah, I was just saying to my head of department, because I was telling him I was doing this podcast and, you know, I wrote this book 30 years ago and it's still, you know, it's still the thing that people want to talk about.

• 5:29Kate Lister?

  It's such a brilliant book. The subject of sex work, it's notoriously elusive. When you try and study it, finding the sources is very difficult and you've absolutely blazed a trail in that department, but defining it can be very difficult as well. Like you go into this stuff thinking, I know what that is. That's somebody that stands on a street corner and hitches their skirt up and says, "Give you a good time for a shilling, governor." And you get into it and you suddenly realise that all the definitions that you think are going to be applicable, suddenly they all start blurring. How did you work with that? What's your definition of a sex worker or a prostitute?

• 6:12Speaker 06

  So I did use the word prostitute in the book, although I wouldn't now. But I tried my best to avoid defining it in a medieval context. So I basically said, today, we think of it as being an explicit exchange of money for sex, but it's not always that. I mean, it's not always explicit. And when it's not explicit, is that sex work or not? In the Middle Ages, I tried to make the argument that we can't really classify people. I mean, there are some people who you can say, yes, they are sex workers. They're in a brothel and people come there and pay to have sex with them. That's fine. There are lots of other people who have sex with people they're not married to,

• 6:56Speaker 06

  and money changes hands. But if you would ask them, they probably wouldn't have considered it work. Yeah. And I'm speculating on what's going on in their heads, but I don't think that they would have considered it work. And what I did in the book is that rather than use the word prostitute to describe these medieval women, I'll use the word whore as a translation of the Latin word meritrix, which can mean a woman who engages in sex for money, or it can mean a woman who engages in sex in a way that I don't approve of. Yes. And I felt like whore was a pretty good, modern translation for that because it can mean a woman who engages in sex for money,

• 7:41Speaker 06

  or it can be just a generalized insult for any woman whose sexual activity you don't approve of. And so I think a lot of times, when you have a medieval source, you could translate it as condemning prostitution, but you can also translate it as condemning whoredom. And I think there are a lot of women who, basically, what I argued in the book, and I might not Take such a strong position on this now, but there wasn't really very much room in medieval society for a sexually active, single woman, okay? Like, a single woman was either meant to be married in the future, in which case she was

• 8:21Speaker 06

  expected to remain chaste, or she was expected to become a member of a religious order, in which case she would remain chaste. And a lot of unmarried women just got labeled as whores because they were sexually active. I mean, the term could also mean, sometimes the word concubine is used in English, that also has a lot of negative connotations, but there are a lot of instances in medieval texts where I think the best translation is domestic partner. So it's John Smith and his whore, you know, or John Smith and Elizabeth, his whore, you know, are come into court to be punished. And I think the best translation for that is, you know, his, his partner.

• 9:06Speaker 06

  They're not married, but they're living together.

• 9:09Kate Lister?

  And it also captures the level of judgment that was going on

• 9:13Speaker 06

  Yes.

• 9:13Kate Lister?

  there, doesn't it? Which is, obviously, when you're talking about somebody selling sexual services today in the present, and you recognize autonomy, and you'll use a word like sex work, but I think unpicking the language of how this was spoken about is particularly revealing, and that in itself can tell us a lot.

• 9:30Speaker 06

  As you're very well aware, the issue of autonomy and sex work is very much debated because as people who are not sex workers, it's incumbent on us to let people describe themselves and to act autonomously. But there are also women trafficked into sex work. There are women who are under huge financial pressure, there are women who are in debt to people involved in organized crime and, and forced into it. So it covers a huge range of kinds of working situations today, and the ideal would be for

• 10:11Speaker 06

  All those women and men to have made the choice to go into that line of work. And the ones who say, you know, yes, I made this choice and should be treated properly accordingly. But it's important also to recognize, you know, that it's not always a choice. I think it's completely the same in the Middle Ages.

• 10:31Kate Lister?

  Just about to ask you that.

• 10:32Speaker 06

  I never talk about the modern period, except when I'm going to make a medieval comparison. There is a story from the London court records of a young woman who comes to town and is looking for work as a housemaid and is not able to find it. And she meets a woman who said, oh, I have a really good job for you. And it turns out to be as a sex worker in a brothel. And, you know, that's one case. There are some other similar ones, but I think that must have gone on a lot. Late medieval Europe, especially, it's a very mobile society. And women in particular are drawn to towns.

• 11:16Speaker 06

  Often their agricultural labor is less well paid than men's. And they go off to town in the hopes of, you know, getting domestic work in a great household. And, you know, that doesn't always happen.

• 11:30Kate Lister?

  Still happens today. That's still the case today in a lot of trafficking incidences. Somebody's promised work and then they they sign up for it and then they get there. And then the work is in what they they were told it was. Then they're told that they're indebted, that they owe them money for their travel and their ticket and their food. And they create this sense of indentured servitude. So that that hasn't changed since the earliest records of this.

• 11:55Speaker 06

  Yeah, I mean, the one thing that has changed, I think that's a complicating factor today is two things. One is drugs.

• 12:04Kate Lister?

  Yes.

• 12:04Speaker 06

  So that people are made to be dependent, not just, you know, financially, but.

• 12:11Speaker 06

  Also for drugs and also because if you are a trafficked sex worker and you're seeing a large number of customers per day and you're sort of kept imprisoned, more or less, you know, it's a horrible life and drugs are one way of getting out it. Well, not out, but of alleviating it. And as far as I know, you didn't have that in the Middle Ages. I mean, certainly alcohol. There are examples of women on the street who will basically sell themselves for a farthing cake and a farthing worth of ale.

• 12:43Kate Lister?

  The sex work today is, as we've just been allergic to, it's a very, very complex experience. And contained within that are the experiences of people who have been abused and trafficked or people that feel they have no other choice, but also people that do want to do this work, people who make good money from it. This is a choice, is what they want to do. Through to now, we've got things like, as you're saying, online expressions, OnlyFans, et cetera. It's so complex. And although they didn't have the internet in the Middle Ages, that level of complexity would still have existed through from your royal mistresses, right up at the top, who probably wouldn't have said that they were prostitutes, probably would have taken great offence if you'd, if you'd said that to them.

• 13:26Speaker 06

  Yes.

• 13:26Kate Lister?

  Right down to the people who we've just been discussing. So when you're researching something like that, how do you work with that broader spectrum of different people that, that you could be talking about?

• 13:39Speaker 06

  So I was less interested in royal mistresses. And I kind of let the language used in the sources guide me, which meant that you do end up with the occasional royal mistress, because they get called the same words that streetwalkers get called. But I was going mainly on the basis of court records, which involve the lower end of society, and then also religious texts like sermons, lives of saints, edifying materials. And they are mostly talking about. At least the middle levels of society rather than the upper.

• 14:19Kate Lister?

  The other thing is that the Middle Ages, that it's a huge amount of history.

• 14:24Speaker 06

  Yes.

• 14:24Kate Lister?

  In the popular imagination, if you say Middle Ages, I guess people might think of Game of Thrones, just your average Joe on the street. And you think of the Middle Ages as being this very romanticized, stylized point in history. But it was a thousand years of history. And when you think about how much sex work, sex work law, how we've understood it, the language around it has changed in the last 20 years, a thousand years, that's what time periods were you looking at within that?

• 14:52Speaker 06

  It's a lot easier to look at it after the 12th century. In the Middle Ages, and I think this is still true today, it's mainly something that is policed on the municipal level. And so you don't really get that until you get towns. I mean, I'm sure, I'm sure there were peasant women who sold sex, probably not as their sole means of support. But, you know, I'm sure there were, but there weren't, as far as I know, you know, brothels in rural areas and so on. It's with the rise of towns, you get municipalities deciding that control of sex

• 15:34Speaker 06

  work is a major way that they need to maintain public order.

• 15:39Kate Lister?

  So there's less evidence for rural sex work than there is for urban sex work. How was it being regulated by the authorities in a town like, like London or York? What kind of controls were they putting in? And were they putting in controls?

• 15:55Speaker 06

  Yeah. So in many places in Europe, and it includes several towns in England, not London, not York, Southampton, probably because it was a port. And in London, Southwark, which was at that point not part of the city of London, but it was a separate borough, they had legal brothels, which the ones in Southwark were owned by the Bishop of Winchester because it was on his land.

• 16:25Kate Lister?

  I love that fact.

• 16:26Speaker 06

  In Shakespeare, you'll see women who were called Winchester geese. And those are the sex workers from those brothels. And they drew customers from London and taking customers across the river was major trade. And the bishop didn't manage them. He rented them out and delegated the management. But there is a set of regulations which purports to be from the 12th century, but it's not.

• 16:55Kate Lister?

  Your book was where I first learnt that. It's like, damn, I've been taken in by a hoax. What is the document and when does it date from?

• 17:01Speaker 06

  So it's from the 15th century and it's a set of regulations for the brothels in Southwark. And it basically says it regulates, you know, women are to pay for their food, when they can and can't leave, that they're not supposed to have lovers. That is, they're not supposed to have men with whom they have sex for free, I guess. And I think the concern is that the brothel keeper wants the women to remain under their control rather than to have a man advocating for her or a man profiting from selling her. There are municipal brothels like this. They're not that common in England. They're all over the south of France. They're all over Germany. They exist in Italy.

• 17:46Speaker 06

  The document creating them in the city of Florence is very interesting because it gives reasons. And the reasons that are usually given are to maintain public order. You know, we're going to restrict. Sex worker to this one area of town, what we would now call the red light district. And so respectable women can walk around in other parts of town without being harassed. But the one from Florence says they're concerned about the population decline. It had not gone back to its pre-plague levels. And they said, men are getting married too late. And I don't remember the exact phrasing, but it's basically there's too many men having sex with other men.

• 18:28Kate Lister?

  I remember reading that now.

• 18:30Speaker 06

  Yes. So we want to, you know, make sure that they, you know, experience the joy of having sex with women. And that way they'll want to get married and have children. And so they establish a municipal brothel for an opportunity for men to have sex with women.

• 18:46Kate Lister?

  Some mental gymnastics.

• 18:49Speaker 06

  Yeah, you know, who knows whether that's the real justification or not. But so many, many towns did that.

• 18:57Kate Lister?

  It's to stop men being gay. That's one of the reasons.

• 19:00Speaker 06

  That's one of the reasons. Yeah.

• 19:02Kate Lister?

  I love that.

• 19:03Speaker 06

  The other one is to stop men hitting on respectable women.

• 19:07Kate Lister?

  Of course.

• 19:08Speaker 06

  We need to draw a line between respectable and non-respectable women. And non-respectable women are fair game.

• 19:16Kate Lister?

  Nobody thought to say to the men, could you stop hitting on women that you don't know? That wasn't part of this. Right. Okay.

• 19:22Speaker 06

  There's a text that's attributed to Thomas Aquinas. And Thomas Aquinas actually didn't write it, but he uses the metaphor of a sewer. You know, and it's what I've called the hydraulic model of male sexuality. So there's this great flow that's being penned up and it has to be released somewhere. And if you don't provide a brothel in which to release this drive, then it's going to be released in worse ways.

• 19:51Kate Lister?

  Right.

• 19:51Speaker 06

  And he uses the metaphor of a sewer.

• 19:54Kate Lister?

  Nice.

• 19:54Speaker 06

  The city needs a sewer, you know, it's nasty. You don't want to have it in your house, but you need for there to be one. Cause if there isn't one, the whole city is going to stink. And so sex workers for him are the sewer.

• 20:08Kate Lister?

  Nice.

• 20:08Speaker 06

  They sort of absorb all the evil and the sin and bodily fluids. And, you know, that keeps honest women safe.

• 20:23Kate Lister?

  I'll be back with Ruth after this short break.

• 20:42Kate Lister?

  Hello Betwixters, I'm jumping in here because I have some very exciting news. Betwixt the Sheets has set up camp on YouTube. That's right, it took us a while, but we are there now. So if you are the kind of person who likes to see your podcasts as well as hear your podcasts, you can now go and find us right there and the link is in the show notes. And please remember to like and subscribe because the people in charge of the money really do like that.

• 21:11Kate Lister?

  Right, let's get on with it.

• 21:24Kate Lister?

  You see that justification cropping up. I don't know if Florence is unique for the, there are too many gay men around here. We need a brothel quick. But definitely you see the, well, we need to do something with them because otherwise the men are just going to go mad with lust and we need to protect the, the good, honest, virtuous women. Is it true that some sex workers in medieval Europe were made to wear distinctive clothing?

• 21:49Speaker 06

  Yes.

• 21:49Kate Lister?

  To, to single them out? Or that is true? Okay.

• 21:51Speaker 06

  That is true. Okay, so there's two different things going on. I mean, one is in many places, there are sanctuary laws generally, which say how expensive of clothing people can wear and mostly women. So only the upper classes are allowed to wear fur. So only the royals are allowed to wear ermine fur.

• 22:09Kate Lister?

  Okay.

• 22:10Speaker 06

  The white with the black speckles. And then only the upper classes are allowed to wear other kinds of fur and so on, all the way down. It's justified in various ways. One is that so that people will know immediately what quality you are. And it's also justified in terms of waist.

• 22:30Speaker 06

  That women, of course, women are the problem. Women are asking their husbands for more and fancier clothing and pressuring the husbands. And the husbands are wasting their money on fancy clothing for their wives. So if we have a law that says that, you know, bourgeois wives can't wear certain expensive types of clothing, then husbands will be put in a bad position. So that's one aspect of it. And so there, because sex workers are sort of lower down in society, they're not supposed to be dressing so fancy. But then you have sort of the flip side. Okay. Some towns, and again, you would find this mainly in Italy, regulated clothing,

• 23:13Speaker 06

  not by saying people with less money can't wear the fancy stuff, but people who are not sex workers can't wear the fancy stuff. Oh. So certain kinds of gowns only sex workers should wear. And that's supposed to keep women from demanding these fancy new gowns from their husbands because it would mark them out as a sex worker. But I think some of the same thing is going on that you see today where, you know, it used to be that fashion went from the top down, but today it often, it goes from the bottom up. And what people with money wear is often a couture version of what people with less money are, are wearing. Some of that, you know, may have been going on there too.

• 23:57Speaker 06

  Then in some places, sex workers had to be particularly marked out. This you see in England, they had to wear striped hoods. And I don't know what the significance of the stripes were. It may be that that kind of cloth was cheaper, but that would mark you out as a sex worker, meaning that it's okay to accost you in the street. And even on occasion, that your consent to sex doesn't matter. Wow. There are discussions about whether Ameritricks, a whore, can be raped. Oof. And the idea is that she is common to all. This is kind of why I use the title, Common Women, for my book. It wasn't really specifically phrased in terms of ownership because legally during

• 24:42Speaker 06

  the Middle Ages, women are not property. I mean, except enslaved women. But, you know, married women are not their husband's property. Daughters are not their father's property. That's, you know, technically, legally speaking, but in practice, this idea of common women was if a woman wasn't attached to one man, then she's considered common to all. And just like in those days, a wife was considered to have given consent to her husband by marrying him. So it wasn't possible for a husband to rape his wife. You know, under law, it wasn't possible. It would not be considered rape because she had given consent by marrying him.

• 25:23Speaker 06

  A woman who had sex outside of marriage was risked being classified as a whore and considered to have given consent. So this is not settled law. It's something that's discussed, whether, you know, a sex worker can legally can be raped. I am quite sure that sex workers were raped all the time in the Middle Ages and in any time period. I mean, these are women who are vulnerable and who men are encouraged not to have a lot of respect for.

• 25:56Kate Lister?

  Yeah, yeah, still the case today, unfortunately. Do we have any idea of what life was like inside these brothels? Like you, you mentioned the document pertaining to the stews of Southwark, but do we have anything that tells us what the day to day life of a woman working there would be like? Like, did she live somewhere else? Did she live in? Was food provided? Anything like that?

• 26:18Speaker 06

  It varies a lot from place to place. In Southwark, she lived out and she had to pay the brothel keeper for the food that she ate when she was there. And I expect the rates weren't cheap. In some places, there were rules in the south of France, where they lived in, the women went to mass on Sunday and they would, you know, all go in a group and they would be shepherded, you know, there by the brothel keepers. And I'm sure everybody else, you know, in church, like, looked at them, but they weren't supposed to talk to them. There's a very interesting document that has been written about in a very nice online piece by Susan McDonough.

• 27:00Speaker 06

  It's about a brothel keeper in the south of France who went on pilgrimage. So she left an inventory of all her goods when she went on pilgrimage, so that whoever was supposed to manage her goods for her while she was gone would have a list. And it included a huge amount of cooking utensils and supplies and so on. And it seems like there, anyway, this holds up in medieval art, where you see scenes that are meant to take place in a brothel. There are usually men sitting, eating and drinking with a woman at their side. And it seems like it was a place for partying.

• 27:42Speaker 06

  And men didn't just go there, you know, and have sex and leave. They went there for an evening of food and drink and sex. And I wonder if it might not have been like quote unquote gentlemen's clubs today, where it's the woman's job to get the man to buy as much alcohol as possible at really inflated prices.

• 28:07Kate Lister?

  Yes.

• 28:07Speaker 06

  So I think the women pretty often ate in the brothel with the customer as part of... One of the things that men are getting from the brothel is some companionship as well as sex. And don't forget, this is one of the things that the sex worker has to provide. I mean, sometimes it's just, you know, okay, I'll tap you on the shoulder in the street. Let's go into that dark lane and do it quickly. But very often, these are men who are merchants, who are foreigners, and they want some female companionship. And what the woman has to provide is not just the sex,

• 28:49Speaker 06

  but also she has to act like she's enjoying being with him and having a good time.

• 28:54Kate Lister?

  There's a lot of emotional labor there, isn't there?

• 28:56Speaker 06

  Right, that's one thing. The other thing that was really striking in this inventory is, well, first of all, this brothel keeper is going on pilgrimage, and her partner is going with her. So she lives with a man to whom she's not married. He's not the one who's keeping her property for her while she's gone. And so he may be going with her. So you think, well, why is a brothel keeper going on pilgrimage? I mean, aren't they doing something that the church says is absolute no-no? And then in the list of the inventory of things in the house, one of the items is a portable altar to the Virgin Mary. And again, why does a brothel keeper have this in her house?

• 29:38Speaker 06

  And I mean, I bet that if you went and talked to a group of sex workers today, you would find some who consider themselves Christian and who go to church. And they don't necessarily see a disconnect there. They are doing what they are doing, you know, as a job. And maybe it's something that the church doesn't approve of, but everybody does lots of things that the church doesn't approve of. And you can do penance and get absolution for it. And these people may have been just as devout and just as non-devout as your average medieval person.

• 30:21Kate Lister?

  And the brothel keeper, her name was Joanetta, Joanetta Amara?

• 30:26Speaker 06

  Yes.

• 30:32Kate Lister?

  I'll be back with Ruth after this short break.

• 30:58Kate Lister?

  I had a look at the list, the inventory, because I knew I was going to talk to you. And my Latin is appalling, by which I mean Google Translate. But some other things on the list, there were beds, linen mattresses. Makes sense. Salt shakers, copper kettles, candelabras made of iron, lamps, tables, benches, a new chair, curtains, the altar piece of the Virgin Mary.

• 31:22Speaker 06

  Yeah.

• 31:23Kate Lister?

  A woman's skirt and sprouts, but that one may be wrong. I don't know why they would have sprouts there. I might have mistranslated that. It's quite a domestic list that. There seems to be a lot of things about cooking copper kettles, salt shakers.

• 31:36Speaker 06

  It would have been sort of like a tavern. I mean, what I was really struck by is that there are a lot of wine jugs.

• 31:42Kate Lister?

  Wine jugs, yes. Yes, I didn't get that one on my list. I told you I was bad at it. That would make perfect sense that you've got to provide some kind of entertainment as well, that these are sort of rowdy places, houses of ill repute, I suppose. Is there any truth in the narrative that if you were a sex worker, you couldn't be buried in consecrated ground? Just going back to what you're saying about religion and sex work being compatible.

• 32:10Speaker 06

  Well, it would really depend a lot on the individual church and on whether you had made a proper deathbed confession. So it wasn't a sort of overall church law, but individual churches would have been, I think, quite reluctant.

• 32:27Kate Lister?

  I think that one came about, it was written not in the medieval period, but long after it, about a graveyard in Southwark that was called the Single Woman's Graveyard. And there's one mention that single women couldn't be buried in consecrated ground, but I've never seen that corroborated anywhere else. Like, like you said, as long as they confessed.

• 32:45Speaker 06

  I have not either. It wouldn't surprise me that there was a graveyard where, the use of single women here is very interesting. I mean, it was used in Southwark as a synonym for sex worker, but as was the term spinster.

• 33:02Kate Lister?

  Oh, I didn't know that.

• 33:03Speaker 06

  Which also means an unmarried woman, but it comes from a woman who spins. And this is where I think that connection may come from between single women and spinster, is that when they went with a customer. The women in the Southwark stews were supposed to spin wool or flax for the brothel keeper. And so a spinster could be the euphemism for for the women in the stews.

• 33:31Kate Lister?

  I didn't know that.

• 33:33Speaker 06

  It wouldn't surprise me if there was a graveyard where they were typically buried. There's not a canon law blanket prohibition on single women or sex workers not being buried in consecrated ground. Unrepentant sinners in general are not meant to be buried in consecrated ground. So you you wanted to make an act of contrition and and receive the last rites. But sex workers were not excluded from that.

• 34:02Kate Lister?

  So as a final question, then, whenever you're researching this history, what you tend to get is names that appear in court records or inventory lists or sort of some kind of legal proceeding, but then they just vanish and you never find out what happened afterwards. It's like a proper cliffhanger. Have you ever been able to trace like the life cycle, the life story of a medieval sex worker in full? Or is it all just just little moments of their lives?

• 34:29Speaker 06

  It's all just little flashes. It's really frustrating.

• 34:32Kate Lister?

  Wouldn't you love to know what happened? Yeah, I would. Like, what was the pilgrimage like, Janetta? You know, like, did you get everything back?

• 34:40Speaker 06

  So one person who I think has maybe come the closest to analyzing what the life would have been like is Jamie Page, who's written about sex work and other sorts of sexual relationships in late medieval Germany. And the sources that he has have allowed him to get into the people's lives a little bit more, you know, because you have people actually giving testimony about their lives, which I have not found very much in the work that I did, which was on England. So, yeah, Paige's work is is very interesting for that.

• 35:22Kate Lister?

  Ruth, you have been wonderful to talk to, you always are. If people want to know more about you and your research, where can they find you?

• 35:29Speaker 06

  I'm pretty easily Google-able because it's not that common of a surname and I teach at Trinity College Dublin and the Trinity College Dublin website has some more information about me and my scholarship.

• 35:44Kate Lister?

  Thank you so much for coming to talk to us, I've thoroughly enjoyed myself.

• 35:48Speaker 06

  No, thanks for inviting me again.

• 35:55Kate Lister?

  Thanks for listening and thank you to Ruth for joining us. And if you like what you heard, don't forget to like, review and follow along wherever it is that you get your podcasts. If you'd like us to explore a subject or maybe you just wanted to say hello, then you can email us at [email protected]. Coming up, we have got an episode on the Kinsey Report and the third installment of our Sex Work series, where we will be exploring the Renaissance. This podcast was edited and produced by Stuart Beckwith, the senior producer was Charlotte Long. Join me again, Betwixt the Sheets, The History of Sex Scandal in Society, a podcast by History Hit. This podcast contains music from Epidemic Sound.