The Problem With Football Helmets

Football helmets can prevent devastating injuries, but they may also help make an inherently violent game feel safer than it really is.

Speaker names marked ? are inferred from speaking time and the show’s known hosts — they are not voice-verified.

• 0:00Roman Mars?

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• 0:35Roman Mars?

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• 1:19Roman Mars?

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• 1:48Roman Mars?

  This is 99% Invisible. I'm Roman Mars.

• 1:54Roman Mars?

  In August 2024, James Daniels was suiting up for an NFL preseason game. Daniels was an offensive lineman for the Pittsburgh Steelers, and he was signed to a lucrative three-year contract to play with the team.

• 2:07Speaker 01

  But that day, nobody was talking about Daniels as a player. The news media was focused on Daniels because of what he was wearing.

• 2:15Roman Mars?

  That's producer Chris Berube.

• 2:17Speaker 01

  Daniels was believed to be the first NFL player to sport a new kind of helmet during a game, an awkward piece of equipment called a guardian cap.

• 2:27Roman Mars?

  A guardian cap is basically an extra layer of padding that goes around the outside of a traditional football helmet.

• 2:34Speaker 02

  So you've got your helmet, and then you've got your guardian cap, and then you've got another layer that you pull down over the guardian cap that then represents the logos of the team, the Chargers lightning bolts or the Green Bay G or whatever it may be.

• 2:44Speaker 01

  Noah Kohan is a professor of American culture studies at Washington University in St. Louis, and he's the author of an upcoming book about football helmets. He says the guardian cap looks markedly different from what football fans are used to.

• 3:00Speaker 02

  It sort of looks like if you had soundproof padding in the form of a cap and stretched that over your helmet. It's a series of lumps made of foam within a sort of fabric covering that's then clipped to the outside of the helmet.

• 3:18Roman Mars?

  The guardian cap is meant to absorb the impact of headshots and to protect players' brains from concussions. Some people hailed the caps as a big step for player safety.

• 3:29Speaker 01

  Today, most NFL players are required to wear them during practices, and some players even wear them during NFL games. But since their introduction, players wearing the guardian caps have received a ton of mockery. The caps make players' helmets look bulbous and disproportionate to the rest of their body. They make professional athletes look like human bobbleheads.

• 3:52Speaker 02

  Your head is huge. You look like the Great Gazoo. It's very noticeable.

• 3:59Roman Mars?

  It's not just the fans who take issue with guardian caps. Many players complain about sacrificing swagger for safety. Philadelphia Eagles star Jason Kelsey actually made fun of the whole idea of a guardian cap during a practice by covering his head in bubble wrap. Other players have said they have no plans to wear them during games.

• 4:20Speaker 01

  Like former Miami Dolphins quarterback Tua Tungaviloa, who suffered multiple concussions, here he is in a press conference in 2024.

• 4:28Speaker 03

  Will you wear a guardian cap?

• 4:29Speaker 04

  Nope.

• 4:30Speaker 03

  Why?

• 4:32Speaker 04

  Personal choice.

• 4:33Speaker 01

  Most players will agree that, yes, it is a good thing to develop new football helmets that make the game safer, but they aren't embracing the guardian cap. In fact, pretty much every evolution of the football helmet has received a mixed response from players and fans. Football helmets have been a flashpoint between folks who want to make football safer and those who want to keep the game rough and tumble. It's been at the center of moral panics and court cases. And today, it's part of a bigger discussion about whether or not it's responsible or even ethical to keep playing America's most popular sport.

• 5:13Roman Mars?

  It may be hard to believe, but there was a time before football was America's game. Way back in the 1870s, football was mostly a distraction for rowdy college students.

• 5:25Speaker 02

  The very first sort of intercollegiate organized match between Rutgers and Princeton, I believe, is more like a soccer match than what we understand today as American football.

• 5:37Speaker 01

  Ivy League college students started mixing soccer and rugby to make up a new kind of American super sport. Originally, American football had a lot of, you know, using your feet to kick the ball forward. But that changed after a fateful game between Harvard University and some good old Canadians from McGill University in Montreal.

• 5:59Roman Mars?

  Like most new sports, there was a certain fluidity to the rules and style of play. Harvard was used to a version of football with a lot of kicking, while McGill was still playing a version of rugby where the ball was passed around by hand. So the Canadians saw what Harvard was doing and said, hey, why are you kicking that ball, you absolute losers?

• 6:21Speaker 02

  And McGill says, you shouldn't play that kicking game. What you want to play is this rugby game where you carry the ball. It's more masculine. It's better. That was the first sort of sliding doors moment where we get to American football.

• 6:36Speaker 01

  Even after football largely got rid of kicking, it was still a very different game from what we're familiar with today. There was no forward passing. Players would huck the ball backwards like they do in rugby.

• 6:47Roman Mars?

  But the biggest difference might be how the players looked. In fact, early football stars didn't look like athletes at all.

• 6:56Speaker 02

  Yeah, I mean, they're literally wearing sweaters and what they would have called knickers, you know, heavy cloth pants and high socks, some kind of early cleated shoe, probably. But they weren't wearing pads.

• 7:10Speaker 01

  These sweaters and knickers didn't offer a ton of physical protection, which was a problem because even in the early days, football was quite violent. Right from the start, football players were tackling each other hard.

• 7:25Speaker 02

  Players might break a rib, and then they might stuff something in their sweater. Or if they broke their nose, I mean, I've even seen pictures of like, almost like a spoon attached to a headband to sort of brace a nose. So at first, there really wasn't anything. People kept hitting their heads. I mean, people died.

• 7:41Speaker 01

  Despite the violence, or perhaps because of the violence, football became a national obsession in the late 19th century. But this rise to prominence also set off a national debate about whether it was responsible to let smart young men play such a barbaric game.

• 7:59Speaker 02

  There were frequent calls to stop playing football, even from people like Charles Elliott, the president of Harvard University, wanted his university to stop playing football around the time of the turn of the century. But this sport was already so popular that his wanting this couldn't affect that change, even at his own university.

• 8:18Roman Mars?

  This problem hit a crisis level in 1905. That year, 19 football players died at the high school and college levels. These were all young, healthy men. There were calls to ban the sport, which got so loud, President Roosevelt had intervened.

• 8:35Speaker 01

  Teddy Roosevelt loved football. In one letter to his son, Roosevelt encouraged Ted Jr. to play the game despite the risks, saying, "The chance of your damaging yourself in body is outweighed by the possibility of bitterness of spirit if you don't play." But President Roosevelt also knew the violence couldn't keep going at this level. He felt a lot of pressure to save the game from itself.

• 9:03Roman Mars?

  In 1905, Teddy Roosevelt convened an emergency meeting at the White House. And there, a group of coaches and officials devised a plan to reform football. They created the first national body to govern university athletics, a body that would become the NCAA. They introduced a whole raft of rule changes, including the forward pass as a way to cut down on tackling and avoid violent pileups.

• 9:27Speaker 01

  And slowly, safety equipment became a standard part of football. Players started to wear shoulder pads and face guards, and some intrepid person came up with the first football helmet, though it's not actually clear who that was.

• 9:44Roman Mars?

  One popular story says the inventor of the helmet was a Navy Admiral named Joseph Mason Reeves. According to legend, Admiral Reeves was advised by a doctor to stop playing football because he was developing a totally wild medical diagnosis called instant insanity. So Admiral Reeves went to a local shoemaker and had the man fabricate a moleskin cap to protect his cranium.

• 10:08Speaker 01

  Noah Kohan says, yeah, that's a nice, clean origin story, but we actually don't know who came up with it.

• 10:15Speaker 02

  There's one version of the story that in fact, James Naismith, the inventor of basketball, fashioned an early crude sort of helmet for himself. So some people say he came up with it, but really it's a kind of convergent evolution. Lots of people are hitting their heads, so lots of people are trying to figure out ways to protect them.

• 10:31Roman Mars?

  Wherever they came from, football helmets became commonplace, but they didn't become mandatory in college football until 1939. The first helmets were made out of leather and they were designed to be hard and rigid like a shoe.

• 10:46Speaker 01

  Wearing these early helmets was definitely better than playing football with a bare head, but the helmets were far from perfect.

• 10:54Speaker 02

  So even if you were wearing a leather helmet, there were multiple players who died effectively from their skull caving in. They were hit so hard and the leather was not strong enough that, that the skull would break and part of it would poke into their brain. And then this could be, you know, almost instantly fatal. So the leather helmet does provide protection, but it, it's not really a permanent solution. And that's part of the reason the plastic helmet enters the picture.

• 11:20Roman Mars?

  The first plastic helmets were developed in the late 1930s by a company called Riddell. Their founder, John Riddell, fabricated helmets for the American military during World War II. And when the war ended, the company went back to making football helmets from a plastic compound called tannite.

• 11:39Speaker 01

  Riddell's design was basically a round, hard dome with a chin strap. It was clear right away, these new plastic helmets were really good at preventing the kinds of injuries that had been plaguing college football. Today, when we think about football safety, the first thing that comes to mind is probably concussions. But back then, there wasn't as much talk about those. Usually people would use euphemisms like he got his bell rung or he's seeing stars. But there was much less public awareness about brain trauma in football. Instead, most of the talk around football safety was centered on breaks, specifically skull fractures. And the plastic helmet was great at preventing those.

• 12:21Speaker 02

  What I mentioned earlier with the leather helmet caving in, it does not happen when you're wearing a plastic helmet.

• 12:28Speaker 01

  But despite this safety innovation, the plastic helmets were also very controversial because they actually made other aspects of the game less safe. The plastic helmet could be used as a weapon. Weirdly, the effort to make the game safer made parts of it more violent.

• 12:46Speaker 02

  When that player's helmeted skull goes crashing into another player's knee, that blows out their knee, right? So the extremities are impacted by the plastic helmet. It becomes a, a source of safety concern.

• 12:59Speaker 05

  There was this moment, this really interesting debate, like, should we go back to leather? Cause it now seems like we're having other kinds of risks.

• 13:07Speaker 01

  Kathleen Bishinsky is a public health professor at Ulinburg College and author of No Game for Boys to Play, about the history of youth football.

• 13:16Speaker 05

  Players are playing in a more dangerous way. If you're, you know, getting hit with a plastic helmet, the other person might be more injured in a way that they wouldn't have with leather.

• 13:26Speaker 01

  Some colleges were fierce holdouts. Notre Dame still had leather helmets into the 1950s, but in the end, football coaches in the NCAA decided the priority had to be preventing head injuries. So plastic helmets became the norm. And Noah Kohan says their success wasn't just because of safety concerns.

• 13:47Speaker 02

  But Riddell recognizes that there's something different going on with the aesthetics of the helmet when they switched to plastic. From their very earliest ads, from like a 1940 catalog, they talk about how the helmet is more beautiful when it's fashioned from plastic.

• 14:02Speaker 01

  The plastic helmets offered a lot of design possibilities. The football helmet became more than just a piece of safety gear. Now, it was a defining symbol for the game itself.

• 14:15Roman Mars?

  Aesthetically, the early plastic helmets were usually just one color. And for a time, the helmets were colored by position. Receivers wore different colored helmets to help a quarterback see who they could throw to.

• 14:28Speaker 02

  In one particular instance, the Naval Academy, who had at that time, gold helmets, painted the eligible receivers' helmets bright orange, like really neon orange. And so there's these very funny pictures of that game where they've got these sort of conservative outfits, except for like, you know, a couple dozen players who have these bright orange lids.

• 14:49Speaker 01

  These fluorescent helmets soon fell out of style. And instead, equipment managers started painting their helmets with school and team colors.

• 14:57Roman Mars?

  There were already a few creative efforts to decorate helmets. In 1947, an artsy jock named Fred Gurkey was a halfback for the Los Angeles Rams. And in a fit of inspiration, Gurkey painted the helmet navy and then painted gold horns on the side. His teammates loved it. And soon, painted helmets spread to other teams.

• 15:20Speaker 01

  They became iconic. Before the 50s and 60s, football culture in America had really focused on the college game. But by mid-century, professional leagues were finding success. And in the 60s, professional football leagues started getting national television contracts. Now, fans could see football players up close and helmets became an important canvas for branding.

• 15:43Speaker 02

  Once millions of people watching at home are, are seeing that iconic camera viewpoint, looking down the two lines of scrimmage as they're lined up across from each other, you have a whole new perspective on the game and a much closer view of these helmets and what's on them.

• 15:57Roman Mars?

  Soon, the helmet became one of the most recognizable aspects of the game, and it became a defining symbol for fans.

• 16:05Speaker 02

  I interviewed and in fact, visited the home of a collector who has almost 9,000 miniature helmets. He's an extreme example, obviously, but the aesthetics of the football helmet really matter. It's why the NFL merchandising is worth more than $3 billion a year.

• 16:20Speaker 01

  In the late 1960s, football went from being a sport to a core part of American culture. And the NFL became the dominant league. 39 million people watched Super Bowl II in 1968, but by the late 70s, that number doubled. And during this time, football helmets became more polished, turning into hard plastic domes with epic branding.

• 16:44Roman Mars?

  On the safety front, helmet manufacturers kept adding new safety features to protect players' heads. But again, most of those innovations were designed to prevent skull fractures and injuries like broken noses and chipped teeth.

• 16:58Speaker 01

  Helmet designers added face bars, which eventually became full-on face masks. They added air bladders to create some space between a player's cranium and the helmet's hard plastic interior. And for the most part, these types of changes were welcome, but helmets could only do so much to protect players from injury.

• 17:18Roman Mars?

  By the 70s, football was a lot safer than 1905, but there were still a lot of high-profile injuries and even deaths, especially at the high school level. And some parents went so far as to sue helmet manufacturers if their kids were hurt during games.

• 17:35Speaker 01

  One famous case involved an 18-year-old named Ernie Pelton, who suffered a terrible injury that left him paralyzed. His family sued Rawlings, the helmet manufacturer, for damages, and it went to court in 1970. During that case, Rawlings pulled out all the stops. Kathleen Bishinsky again.

• 17:54Speaker 05

  One of the legal arguments was that Ernie Pelton had been hit in the chin or somewhere else. So you can't blame the helmet because it wasn't a part of his head the helmet was protecting. They were making all kinds of arguments.

• 18:04Speaker 01

  To really push their case over the top, Rawlings even brought in a star witness, somebody whose good judgment was universally respected. At least, it was at that time.

• 18:16Speaker 05

  OJ Simpson was this star football player. And so the helmet manufacturer actually got OJ Simpson to be one of their expert witnesses. And so they bring him in to basically say like, I have faith in this helmet. And the jury actually sent a note to the judge asking for OJ Simpson's signature. So like, what kind of fair trial can, can this poor Pelton family possibly get in this scenario? Unsurprisingly, perhaps in this context, the, the jury ended up finding that the manufacturer was not responsible.

• 18:51Speaker 01

  Manufacturers kept winning in court while also tweaking the designs of their helmets to try and make them more safe. And to reassure consumers, they helped set up a safety commission in the 70s alongside the NCAA and other groups. The commission conducted scientific tests to help improve their products.

• 19:08Roman Mars?

  But the main safety commission got their funding from equipment companies and football leagues. Kathleen Bishinsky says this was an obvious conflict of interest, and it turned out their testing was not the most rigorous.

• 19:21Speaker 05

  The way that they tested the helmets was pretty simplistic and not really representative of what would actually happen in a game scenario. To test these helmets, they would basically do these drop tests where it's just like, how, how high and how fast do we drop the helmet until it cracks open? I mean, I'm sort of, I'm simplifying, but not by much actually.

• 19:40Speaker 01

  Still, the safety board added some credibility to the idea that helmets were game safe. By the 80s, it was understood helmet manufacturers were concerned about safety, but high-profile injuries made it clear total safety wasn't really possible.

• 19:55Speaker 02

  The sort of line that these football manufacturers have to have is one that the game is dangerous. It's dangerous enough that you need our help, but not so dangerous that with our help, it's not okay for Johnny to play. So they, they really have to be careful that like, you know, we want to protect your, your sweet angel, but also playing football will make him a man. So with our help, it's okay for him to play.

• 20:22Speaker 01

  That said, violence was pretty central to how football was presented. Sports broadcasts would play clips of the most brutal hits over and over again in slow motion. And then there were the opening credits of Monday Night Football, which was the sports marquee broadcast on ABC.

• 20:40Speaker 02

  During the period that I watched Monday Night Football the most, there would be this sort of opening from Al Michaels and then these giant helmets would drop from the sky into this computerized representation of the stadium, right? They'd be shot with lightning bolts. They sort of would quiver as they're building up energy and then they'd rise from the turf, rear back and slam into each other in this just tremendous explosion. Tonight, a big game for both the Los Angeles Raiders and the New Orleans Saints on ABC's Monday Night Football.

• 21:13Speaker 02

  If I missed the opening credits when I was 12 years old, I was devastated. I mean, that's what I that was what I thrilled to. I mean, the drama of it couldn't couldn't be even greater.

• 21:22Speaker 01

  This tension has always been present in football. That shameful thrill of a hard tackle, and then the pang of guilt when you see the stretcher rolling onto the field. But for some fans, those queasy feelings became too much in the early 2000s.

• 21:39Roman Mars?

  In 2002, a doctor named Bennett Amalu discovered some unusual patterns when performing an autopsy on Mike Webster, a football legend for the Pittsburgh Steelers. Dr. Amalu was confused to find that Webster's brain was full of proteins known as tau. Eventually, he concluded that Webster had suffered from CTE, or chronic traumatic encephalopathy.

• 22:03Speaker 01

  Usually, CTE is the result of years of repeated blows to the head. People who typically have CTE include military service members who have served in violent combat zones. But after Amalu's discovery, it was clear. CTE could be caused by regular football concussions. CTE has been linked to all kinds of mental health problems, like unchecked aggression, depression, bad mood swings, memory loss, and even dementia. And a study published this year found at least a quarter of NFL players who died between 2016 and 2021 had CTE. The researchers also said that number could be much higher if they were able to access more data.

• 22:45Roman Mars?

  Now, it's impossible to know whether a person has CTE until after they've died. The diagnosis is only possible during an autopsy. But in a recent poll, about a third of former NFL players surveyed believe they have it.

• 23:00Speaker 01

  George Visker is one of those players. I interviewed George back in 2018. He won a Super Bowl ring as a defensive tackle for the San Francisco 49ers in 1982. And during our talk, George could be gregarious and funny, but he could also be confused and even upset. George says he got his first concussion on a pretty routine play.

• 23:22Speaker 06

  So I guess we went top of helmet to top of helmet. And we both went down and I was face down. And I laid there, I guess, for a few moments. And one of the coaches walked over to me and I started to get up on my hands and knees. And I guess he tried to help me and I said, I'm good. And I stood up. He said, the first step I take, I go over backwards on my back.

• 23:46Speaker 01

  Visker says he began suffering severe memory lapses, which got worse and worse.

• 23:52Speaker 06

  You know, I'd get these balls of light. My hearing would come and go at the beat of my heart. I'd start to project all vomiting.

• 23:58Speaker 01

  George's behavior became erratic. He says his friends didn't recognize him anymore. And eventually, George Visker says, he needed nine emergency brain surgeries.

• 24:09Speaker 06

  I got arrested three times. I had never been in trouble before or since. We'd go out and have a couple beers like we used to do almost every night. And after my first brain surgery, I'm hearing these crazy stories about me doing things totally out of character. You know, going into bars and punching people out and throwing chairs through windows. And I got, you know, all of a sudden, I started ending up in jail. I would have no memory. One minute, we're sitting, you know, eating, having a couple beers somewhere. Next, next thing I know, it's six, eight, 10 hours later, I'm in jail.

• 24:42Speaker 01

  George didn't play very long in the NFL, only a couple of games. But the damage was done. After years of intense treatments, today, George has a sense of normalcy in his life. But his brain trauma has made a lot of things really difficult.

• 24:57Speaker 06

  I have major short-term memory issues, which to this day, I literally, as I sit right here, I have no recollection where I even parked. I'll look in my notebook that I carry with me. I think I showed you my notebook before. I have to write everything down.

• 25:12Speaker 01

  In fact, I saw these memory problems on display a couple of times during our interview.

• 25:17Speaker 06

  You know, I'm sorry, I forgot your question. And I deal with this a lot. I've just hit a complete blank. And I don't even know where I'm going with this. Gosh darn it. I'm sorry. What was the question again?

• 25:31Speaker 01

  In lots of ways, George is an outlier among retired football players. Most of them don't need emergency brain surgery, let alone nine emergency brain surgeries. But the fact remains, he's one of countless retired football players who have struggled with brain injuries after their playing careers are over.

• 25:50Roman Mars?

  Today, most football fans are aware of CTE and the traumatic brain injuries caused by football. And the NFL is more vocal about player safety. There have been new rules implemented to reduce injuries, and TV broadcasts don't revel in violent hits like they used to.

• 26:07Speaker 01

  And for the companies that manufacture football helmets, this newfound focus on concussions has led to a full-on redesign of their products.

• 26:17Speaker 02

  I mean, in some ways, CTE represented a threat to helmet manufacturers insofar as it represented and still represents a threat to, you know, football itself. From another point of view, CTE presented an opportunity for helmet makers, because it gave them another chance to vigorously assert that they were, you know, scientifically innovating in the helmet space. Right? So that's a big point of emphasis in how they market these things. And with that goes a narrative of unending technological progress. Each helmet model is necessarily better than the last. Our scientists are always improving our technology. It's always getting better. There's never even a plateau.

• 27:01Speaker 01

  One example of this technological progress is the guardian cap, the big bobblehead-style protective layer that players started wearing a few years ago.

• 27:11Roman Mars?

  But as we've mentioned, the guardian cap has been slow to catch on. Many players find them uncomfortable and hot. And of course, they look very awkward.

• 27:23Speaker 01

  For a minute, it looked like the guardian cap could be the NFL's preferred way to try and make football helmets safer. They started requiring certain players to wear them during practices in 2022. But since then, other helmet manufacturers have been rolling out products that are supposed to be even more advanced. Newer helmets include high-tech features like flexible materials that squish and contort to soften the impact of direct hits, or 3D printing that allows a manufacturer to fit a helmet to a specific player's head shape. And there are more rigorous safety tests for new helmets, carried out at a specialized lab at Virginia Tech.

• 28:01Roman Mars?

  And the NFL says these new helmet designs, paired with rule changes, reduce concussions to a, quote, "historic low" in the 2024 season. And the NFL says it is actively trying to reduce the number of brain injuries experienced by their players.

• 28:16Speaker 01

  But all these claims, they have to be taken with a Jason Kelsey-sized grain of salt. People are still getting concussions quite a bit. According to NFL statistics, there were 129 concussions during the 2024 regular season. And that number actually increased to 168 the next year. That's more than five players on every team being diagnosed with a concussion.

• 28:42Roman Mars?

  And then there's the problem of subconcussive hits. These are football hits that don't reach the level of concussion, but they can still cause brain damage in the long term. Sometimes players don't see the effects of these kinds of hits until years later.

• 28:59Speaker 05

  They've tried putting sensors in helmets to measure like the magnitude of an impact. And sometimes there'll be what seems like a really, really high impact and that person experiences no symptoms. Sometimes there'll be what seems like a much smaller impact. And then that person might actually have a concussion that takes longer to heal. There's genuinely, I think, a lot we don't understand about what makes certain hits sort of more immediately causing symptoms versus others, how long people have played and how that can accumulate over time.

• 29:29Speaker 01

  On top of that, according to neurologists, you don't need a direct hit to sustain a concussion. In fact, many football concussions are caused by the way a player's head whips back and forth. This kind of trauma is called rotational acceleration.

• 29:46Speaker 01

  The fact is, football helmets are more sophisticated than ever. And yet, Kathleen Bishinsky says, designing a football helmet that totally eliminates concussions is probably not technically possible.

• 29:59Speaker 05

  I remember chatting with a doctor who said, unless you strapped the helmet to a player's shoulders so that your head couldn't, you know, move around on your neck, the helmet really can't do all that much to prevent a concussion. I'm pretty skeptical of helmets being able to massively protect against concussion. I do think you can tweak design around the edges, but I think you're up against the laws of physics and they're pretty tricky.

• 30:26Speaker 01

  Many fans will argue that while you can't eliminate concussions with better helmets, they are a useful form of harm reduction. And I do see the logic in that. If we are going to keep playing tackle football, we should obviously try to make it as safe as possible. But there doesn't seem to be a way to make a version of that game without brain injuries. A few weeks ago, I called up George Visker to get his thoughts about this. And to be honest, I feel kind of weird asking George about football helmets. It's like saying, so remember that car crash that left you in a coma? Hey, what'd you think about the seatbelt? But George was more than happy to talk. He told me that, yeah, okay, helmets are getting better. But the players are also getting stronger, thanks to more

• 31:11Speaker 01

  advanced training methods. So it's hard to see how helmet manufacturers are supposed to keep up.

• 31:17Speaker 06

  And they just kept coming up with more and more and more and more fancy, fancy. And guys are having worse and worse and worse brain injuries. So defensive backs and linebackers coming in, guided missiles. Your brain is sloshing around. I mean, it's unbelievable the amount of kinetic energy these guys generate on these hits.

• 31:40Speaker 01

  Back in 2010, George gave an interview where he suggested rule changes that would help reduce brain injuries in football. A lot of his ideas were procedural, like heavier penalties for dirty plays. But one of his suggestions was about helmets. And it's a perspective I had never heard before.

• 31:57Speaker 06

  The last suggestion I give, I give them, give the NFL, I said, if you want to, you want to reduce brain injury in football, I said, but this one will never pass. You want to reduce them? Get rid of fricking helmets.

• 32:11Speaker 01

  In a way, his suggestion makes a weird kind of sense. Without helmets, players would be a lot more cautious with their hits.

• 32:20Speaker 06

  You're not going to lead with your head. You'll break your nose on the first hit. You'll have stitches in your face. You'll

• 32:26Speaker 01

  Start keeping your head, think about it. Another grim benefit of Georgia's no helmet idea, it would allow fans to see injuries play out in real time. One of the under discussed consequences of football helmets is how they hide players' faces, and they make it possible for fans to disconnect from the consequences of violent hits.

• 32:50Roman Mars?

  We thrill to their exploits, but because we don't know their faces, this notion that the eyes are the window to the soul, right? Because we don't know their visage, right? I think there's less of an appreciation for the full humanity of the athletes.

• 33:05Speaker 01

  Defenders of football will say that today, players know what they're getting into. They're taking a risk with eyes open and they're well paid for it. But this ignores a fundamental truth about the sport, that over a million children play tackle football in the United States.

• 33:23Speaker 05

  I'm often finding myself telling people, less than 1% of football players in the United States are NFL players. The overwhelming percentage, more than 95% in fact, of football players are actually kids, because most people don't play as adults. Most people don't end up making it into the NFL. So from my point of view, that's where the big public health issue is, is trying to understand injury and safety, particularly in youth sports.

• 33:49Speaker 01

  Football helmets are designed to keep players safe, and they also give us a permission structure to keep playing a game that's fundamentally unsafe. They make us care about specific teams with their colorful branding. And yet, they also help us ignore the human beings underneath the helmets, the people who are sometimes bearing terrible consequences for all of our amusement.

• 34:21Roman Mars?

  More with Chris Peruwe, after this.

• 34:26Roman Mars?

  Instagram teen accounts have automatic protections on by default, built in content settings for the content teens can see, contact limits for who can contact them, and time management tools like daily time limits and sleep mode. Teens are automatically placed into teen accounts, and teens under 16 will need a parent's permission to change any of these settings to be less strict. Instagram will continue adding built in safety features to help create age appropriate experiences. Learn more about teen accounts and Instagram's ongoing work to protect teens online at instagram.com/teenaccounts. This fall, LL Bean is celebrating the moments people look forward to all year. The first school drop off, the first sweater weather day, and the first chilly evening around the

• 35:11Roman Mars?

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• 36:06Roman Mars?

  If you're a small business, the right hire can be make or break. Indeed sponsored jobs gets you quality candidates when you need them most. Join the 3.3 million employers worldwide that use Indeed to connect with quality talent that fits their needs. Listeners of this show will get a $75 sponsored job credit to help get your job the premium status it deserves at indeed.com/podcast. That's indeed.com/podcast. Terms and conditions apply. Hiring now, then this is a job for Indeed sponsored jobs.

• 36:41Roman Mars?

  So I am back with Chris Peruwe. Hey, Chris.

• 36:44Speaker 01

  Hey, Roman. Are you ready to keep talking about some more depressing football stuff?

• 36:48Roman Mars?

  Yeah, so let's do this, because this story continues to unfold.

• 36:51Speaker 01

  Okay, so while I was reporting this story, a new study came out about CTE among football players, and we actually mentioned it in the episode, but I want to talk a little bit more about this study, because it's actually pretty shocking to me when you start to dig into the statistics. So this study came out in the British Medical Journal. It was led by this associate professor at Harvard, but you know, there were lots of researchers who worked on this together. And basically, they studied the brains of former NFL players who had died. And the big headline here was a minimum of one in four NFL players have CTE, based on the results of this study. But the thing with that number is, when you start to look into it, it's likely a pretty serious undercount.

• 37:32Roman Mars?

  Oh, an undercount. Okay, so tell me why you think that.

• 37:35Speaker 01

  Okay, so here's where this whole thing gets bleak. So for the study, these researchers looked at 235 brains of former NFL players who died between the years 2016 and 2021. So 235 brains, 215 of them had CTE.

• 37:53Roman Mars?

  That is not 25%.

• 37:54Speaker 01

  That is not. That is 91%.

• 37:57Roman Mars?

  So why do they say 25%?

• 37:59Speaker 01

  So the reason they said 25% is because they didn't have access to every brain from every player who died during that period, right? So they only studied a few hundred brains. So of all the players who died from 2016 to 2021, they can confirm 25% of them had CTE. Like, we know that part for sure. That's what the study shows. However, given how common we've discovered CTE is among former football players, it's pretty likely at least some of the players they didn't study also had CTE. And that would make the percentage of players much higher than 25%.

• 38:33Roman Mars?

  Oh, my God. Like, a lot higher.

• 38:35Speaker 01

  A lot higher. So and also to clarify, that's not to say 91% of NFL players who died during that period had CTE. There's likely some bias, like the families who donated these brains may have had their suspicions that their loved ones had CTE, right? But even with all these caveats in mind, that number is still really striking. Like, 25% is still a really high number, even if that does seem like an undercount.

• 38:58Roman Mars?

  You know, I feel like when I first heard of CTE in football, it seemed like it was potentially this like existential threat to the game. Like, but you know, what's confusing to me is, it just feels like football is more popular than ever. Like, it feels like it was barely a speed bump.

• 39:13Speaker 01

  Yeah, no, it's true. And I mean, a lot of people in my life watch football, to be honest, and they're aware of CTE. It's not like they don't know. And last year, we saw pretty much record numbers of people tuning into NFL football. So this is a stat that really boggled my mind. Of the top 100 most watched TV shows last year in the United States, 83 of them were NFL games. So the Oscars, which is like, for me, that's the biggest TV thing every year. The Oscars had 18 million viewers, and the Super Bowl had 126 million viewers.

• 39:44Roman Mars?

  Yeah, it's the cornerstone of all television at this point. It's the most profitable thing that exists. Yeah.

• 39:48Speaker 01

  And here's the really interesting thing with all this. So despite this popularity, right? More people are watching professional football. Participation in high school football is actually down across the United States. So according to the National Federation of High Schools, from 2009 to 2023, there was a 9% decrease in high school football participation. Those numbers are interesting, because they actually were lower at one point, and they came back up recently. But regardless, we are seeing a decline in participation. And there are other statistics that show the decline is a lot bigger in blue states.

• 40:21Roman Mars?

  Yeah. So the bottom line here is that people are still watching professional football, but when it comes to putting their own kids in danger, like, a lot of parents are just not enrolling them in football programs.

• 40:33Speaker 01

  And what makes all of this uncomfortable for me is the argument is like, you know, I wouldn't enroll my kid, but these professionals, they know what they're getting into, right?

• 40:41Roman Mars?

  Yeah.

• 40:42Speaker 01

  That said, this sport is majority black, in terms of who plays. It has a lot of players coming from poor communities in the American South, which means despite these dangers, you have lots of people who are playing because it's a chance to make a lot of money for their family, right? So these incentives are really skewed, especially in these places where you don't have a lot of other big economic opportunities.

• 41:04Roman Mars?

  So on the question of declining participation, like, what is the NFL doing to address that?

• 41:10Speaker 01

  Well, a few things, because you can think about this as like, it's not an immediate problem for the NFL. There's still lots of people who want to play football, but down the road, it might become more of an issue as fewer people enroll in football. So of course, they're investing in safety. We talked about helmet testing is one thing they're putting a lot of money into. They can make the game safer, maybe more kids will be comfortable playing. Then the other thing is, the NFL is now investing really heavily in flag football.

• 41:34Roman Mars?

  Oh, yeah. Played flag football. It's great. I mean, it's basically, I mean, well, I mean, I played it.

• 41:39Speaker 01

  Casually, yeah.

• 41:40Roman Mars?

  I played it casually, like, in junior high, you know?

• 41:42Speaker 01

  This is not your sideline. This is not what you're doing on the weekends.

• 41:44Roman Mars?

  It is not. But essentially, it's all the same sort of things of football, you know, but they're just, instead of tackling, you have a little, like, tassel of fabric on you, and you know, you grab it from somebody, and that means that they're down.

• 41:56Speaker 01

  That's right. That means the play is stopped dead, right? And like, nobody wears helmets in flag football. You're not supposed to, like, bang heads together, obviously. You're not supposed to tackle people. So it's a much safer way to play a version of football. So the NFL is really investing heavily in high school flag football. Like, they now sell these NFL branded flag football kits that you can order for your high school. I've seen signs outside of a bunch of high schools that say, like, we have a flag football team, and there's like a little NFL logo on the poster. And the other thing is, the NFL is now trying to make professional flag football a thing. So their All-Star Game, the Pro Bowl, the last couple of years, they made the Pro Bowl into a flag football game, because they realized, like, players did not want to get concussed playing at the All-Star Game. That just seems like a really pointless waste of time, like, at an exhibition game.

• 42:41Roman Mars?

  Absolutely.

• 42:42Speaker 01

  So the last couple of years, it was a flag football game. Ultimately, they just canceled the Pro Bowl altogether. They're like, this is not worth doing anymore. And then last year, the NFL invested $32 million in developing a professional flag football league. So we're going to see this soon. Like, the week of next year's Super Bowl, they're going to have a flag football showcase. They're going to show off some of the athletes in this new league. And then in 2028, at the Olympics in Los Angeles, they are going to have men's and women's flag football. And they're making a big deal of flag football as a way to get more women playing the sport. So we're seeing flag football on the rise, and you have to imagine, like, that is largely about safety concerns for younger players, right? Like, that's why they are promoting flag football as this alternative to tackle

• 43:27Speaker 01

  football so heavily.

• 43:29Roman Mars?

  Yeah, yeah. I mean, you're one of the biggest sports fans I know of. Do you think flag football really has a future?

• 43:37Speaker 01

  It's a tough one. I don't know if people are going to watch it in comparable numbers to one of the big American sports. I actually talked to Chuck Klosterman about this. So you know Chuck Klosterman? He's an author. He wrote a book called Football earlier this year.

• 43:50Roman Mars?

  I love that book.

• 43:51Speaker 01

  Yeah, it's a great book. I think he's a big football fan, but he also writes about all the safety issues. Like, it's really worth your time if you care about this. And I asked him about flag football, and he was like, pretty skeptical about the prospect of that becoming a big sport.

• 44:06Speaker 07

  I don't think that you can look at something that, you know, is popular in this very specific way, and sort of make this decision that we're going to strip away some elements of it, and just hope that the other part can absorb everything else. I don't know if that's the case.

• 44:22Speaker 01

  So Chuck argues that most people do not watch football specifically as a blood sport, but that without the violence, it would be a very different kind of game.

• 44:31Speaker 07

  I think subconsciously, there is an understanding that that risk is part of it. That the reason what we're seeing, the things we say we like, you know, the athleticism, the strategy, the competition, the emotion, all of those things are sort of dependent on the fact that this is a risky, dangerous game. Football is the thing where there has to be some level of risk for the rest of it to seem meaningful.

• 44:58Roman Mars?

  I do think that is right. There's something about the risk adding to our sense of the athleticism. And if it wasn't there, then maybe the athleticism would be devalued in some way. It is real. It's really a dilemma. Well, that was a really dark episode, Chris.

• 45:19Speaker 01

  Yeah, I'm not in a great headspace after recording this one. I guess I'm just going to go back to like jetpacks or purabits or something again after this.

• 45:26Roman Mars?

  That sounds great. You have that free rein to just go do something fun with yourself after this. Thank you so much.

• 45:33Speaker 01

  Thanks, Rob, but I appreciate it.

• 45:40Roman Mars?

  99% Invisible was produced this week by Chris Berube, edited by Delaney Hall, mixed by Martin Gonzalez, music by Swan Real and APM, fact checking by Graham Hesha. Noah Kohan's book about the history of football helmets will be out next year from Oklahoma Press. When it becomes available, you should really check it out. Kathleen Boshinsky's book is called No Game for Boys to Play: The History of Youth Football and the Origins of a Public Health Crisis. Chuck Klosterman's book is simply called Football. And finally, George Visker also has a book out. It's called Facing Giants: My 38-Year Battle. These are totally worth your time, and we will have a link to all of these on our show page at 99pi.org. And special thanks to all the researchers and football players who spoke to Chris for

• 46:25Roman Mars?

  this episode. Kathy Tu is our executive producer. Kirk Holstead is our digital director. The rest of the team includes Jason DeLeon, Emmett Fitzgerald, Christopher Johnson, Vivian Lay, LaShamadon, Joe Rosenberg, Kelly Prime, Jacob Medina Gleason, Talon and Rain Stradley, and me, Roman Mars. The 99% Invisible logo was created by Stefan Lawrence. We are part of the SiriusXM Podcast family, now headquartered six blocks north in the Pandora Building in beautiful Uptown Oakland, California. You can find us on all the usual social media sites, as well as our own Discord server. There's a link to that, as well as every past episode of 99PI at 99pi.org.

• 47:18Roman Mars?

  This episode is presented by Air France. Air France Business Cabin offers comfort from start to finish. Enjoy priority check-in and boarding, followed by access to peaceful lounges. Onboard, savor menus created by renowned French chefs, paired with wines and champagne selected by Smollet. Stay connected with free high-speed Wi-Fi, then unwind in a fully adjustable lie-flat bed with a mattress topper developed with Sofitel My Bed, a signature touch of French hospitality. The art of travel elevated, because Air France Business Cabin goes further in every detail to make your journey exceptional.

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• 48:59Speaker 04

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