Titan Sub Disaster | Cyclops | 2

Driven by ambition and convinced that innovation justifies risk, entrepreneur Stockton Rush pushes forward with increasingly experimental submersible designs. See Privacy Policy at https://art19.com/privacy and California Privacy Notice at https://art19.com/privacy#do-not-sell-my-info.

Speaker names marked ? are inferred from speaking time and the show’s known hosts — they are not voice-verified.

• 0:00Lindsay Graham?

  Audible subscribers can binge new seasons of American Scandal early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts. American Scandal uses dramatizations that are based on true events. Some elements, including dialogue, might be invented, but everything is based on historical research. It's 2006 in Puget Sound near Seattle, Washington. Wendy Rush paces the deck of a small motorboat, her boots clacking against the fiberglass. It's a beautiful day.

• 0:42Lindsay Graham?

  The late afternoon sun sends darts of light dancing over the waves, but Wendy barely notices. Her eyes are fixed on what's beneath the water. A cluster of bubbles appears, followed by a strange silhouette wobbling upward in the swell. Wendy leans forward as a bright yellow mini-submersible rises to the surface. A moment later, its top hatch swings open, and her husband's head pops out. For the past few months, Stockton Rush has been building this 13-foot mini-submersible using parts and blueprints obtained from a company in London. He insists it's safe, but Wendy couldn't shake the nerves when he took the sub under the waves for the first time half an hour ago.

• 1:26Lindsay Graham?

  With a wide grin on his face, Stockton calls out from the sub. Oh, that was incredible, incredible! Wendy throws him a rope, and Stockton loops it through a metal ring on the top of the yellow hull before throwing it back to her. She pulls him in. You said you'd be 20 minutes. I couldn't resist. I wanted to stay down a little longer. Here, help me up. Stockton reaches out for her hand. He pulls himself awkwardly from the hatch, wriggling, like he's crawling out of a sleeping bag. When he's finally free, Wendy helps him climb up onto the motorboat. You look like someone's folded you into a suitcase. Well, it's a small price to pay. You wouldn't believe what it's like down there. Wendy raises an eyebrow. You were at thirty feet, Stockton, not the bottom of the Mariana Trench.

• 2:10Lindsay Graham?

  Well, even at thirty feet, the world looks totally different. It's like stepping onto another planet. Well, I'm glad you had a good time. I've spent the last half hour imagining all the ways that little toy can sink. Hey, the K-350 is not a little toy. It's a precisely engineered submersible. You said your elbows keep hitting the valves. Well, I can adjust that. Besides, flying on your stomach is an efficient use of space. You still need room to move your arms. No one said it's luxury travel. Besides, it's mine. I built that thing, bolt by bolt, and it works. Wendy studies her husband, taking in the bright, almost feverish excitement in his eyes. She can't help smiling. All right then, tell me, what did you see? I can't, I can't even begin to describe it.

• 2:53Lindsay Graham?

  There's, there are forests of kelp down there, swaying like, like they're breathing. And so many fish. I had no idea. There's so much. But it's, it's also so quiet. You just forget the entire world above you even exists. And I suppose that's why you took an extra ten minutes, huh? You forget about me, too? No, it, it just gets into your soul. That's my point. This is just the beginning. I'm gonna be doing some big things. Wendy gives a wry smile and glances at the tiny, yellow sun. With that thing? Well, you gotta remember, every great journey begins with a single step. Someday, this is all gonna be routine. We're gonna take people to places that they've never dreamed of. All right. Just make sure you always come back, all right?

• 3:38Lindsay Graham?

  Wendy Rush fires up the motorboat as Stockton lashes the submersible to the back. Once it's secure, they head toward land. All the way back home, every time Wendy looks over at Stockton, he's staring at the tiny, yellow vessel rocking in the wake behind him. Over the thirty years that they've been married, Wendy's grown used to Stockton and his unusual obsessions. But she has no idea just how far this new one will take them.

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• 5:14Lindsay Graham?

  From Audible Originals, I'm Lindsay Graham, and this is American Scandal.

• 5:37Lindsay Graham?

  Fifteen years after his first trip beneath the waves, Stockton Rush would take a submersible to the most famous wreck in maritime history. The ocean liner Titanic had sunk on its maiden voyage in 1912, and for the next century and more, it maintained a hold on the world's imagination, featuring in countless books, plays, movies, and television shows. But the allure of Titanic would blind rush to the risks of deep-sea exploration, and in June 2023, his hubris would catch up with him. His experimental submersible Titan suffered a catastrophic implosion, and the five people on board, including Rush himself, were killed instantly.

• 6:18Lindsay Graham?

  Rush had been warned many times that he was courting disaster, but he was never the kind of man who listened to skeptics. This is episode two, Cyclops.

• 6:31Lindsay Graham?

  It's 2007 in Puget Sound, Washington. Forty-four-year-old Stockton Rush leans over the side of his motorboat, making final checks on the small, self-built submersible that's bobbing in the water. By now, Rush has taken several trips in this mini-sub. He's already met sharks, dolphins, and seals beneath the waves, and the deeper he descends, the more he sees and the further he wants to go next time. But before he takes his sub to a new depth, he always tests it first. As his wife Wendy watches on, Rush gets to his feet, dries his hands on his shorts, and steps over to the controls of an electric winch. He thumbs the button, and the motor whirs to life, its drum spinning, paying out rope.

• 7:14Lindsay Graham?

  Rush and Wendy then lean over the rail as the bright yellow sub disappears into the dark water. Wendy jokes that it's probably the last time they'll ever see it. Rush grins back, but he's confident in the machine he's built. He keeps his eyes on the winch as it unwinds. So far, the sub has been to a maximum depth of 100 feet, but Rush is sure it can go far deeper. So when it reaches 100 feet, he keeps going. Wendy glances at him as it sinks deeper and deeper, but Rush still lets it run. He only shuts off the winch at 150 feet. For a moment, he lets the submersible dangle in the depths. Then he flips a switch, and the winch reverses. The cable tightens, drawing the sub back up to the boat.

• 7:59Lindsay Graham?

  Eventually, the submersible breaks the surface, and Rush can't hold back. He immediately leans over the rail, wrestling open the hatch to peer inside. Wendy calls out from behind, asking what he can see, and Rush turns around triumphantly, declaring he can't see anything. The interior is bone-dry. Pulling his head out, he quickly checks the exterior, too. There are no signs of damage, no gaps in the seals, no cracks on the window or the hull, and that's good enough for Rush. The next time this sub goes to 150 feet, he'll be inside. Over the next few months, Rush makes several more trips in his homemade submersible, going deeper each time. And with every trip, he notices subtle changes in the water.

• 8:43Lindsay Graham?

  The light fades, the colors shifts, and new species of plants and animals appear out of the gloom. But he's never satisfied. More than anything, he wants to reach the Deep Scattering Layer, a twilight zone where marine life is so dense that early sonar operators mistook it for the bottom of the ocean. It's estimated that this layer contains more than a million invertebrate species, most still unknown to marine biologists. But there's a problem. The Deep Scattering Layer begins at roughly 1,000 feet. That's almost twice the maximum depth of his homemade submersible. To reach that far, Rush will need to buy or build a far more advanced vessel. But Rush is not deterred. He sees himself as a pioneer.

• 9:27Lindsay Graham?

  After all, it's in his blood. Rush was born in 1962 into a wealthy family, with roots as old as the United States itself. He was named after two relatives who signed the Declaration of Independence: Richard Stockton and Benjamin Rush. And just like his founding father ancestors, the young Rush saw himself as a trailblazer. As a young man, he once dreamed of going into space, but poor eyesight put an end to that ambition. But after he made a fortune of his own in investment banking, he switched his attention to a different form of extreme exploration: the deep sea. The Kitchen350 Mini Submersible had given him his first exhilarating taste of underwater adventure, and now he's ready to go further.

• 10:11Lindsay Graham?

  But even as a wealthy man, Rush can't achieve his ambitions alone. Luckily, he has a contact book full of friends who are even richer than he is. One stands out: the space-obsessed tech entrepreneur Guillermo Sandlin.

• 10:26Lindsay Graham?

  And when Rush suggests to him that they can explore the oceans instead of the stars, Sonline quickly agrees to partner up. In 2009, the two men found a company together. They name Ocean Gate. Their plan is to eventually run a fleet of submersibles, but they start with just one. The Antipodes is a five-person vessel with a steel hull rated to 1,000 feet. Although it's nearly 40 years old, the sub has plenty of life left in it, and Ocean Gate quickly begins renting it out to scientific researchers. Starting in 2010, Ocean Gate undertakes dozens of dives in Antipodes, many in partnership with the University of Washington. But the sub is not used solely for research. Ocean Gate also offers underwater excursions for paying customers.

• 11:10Lindsay Graham?

  Its first tourism trips are to Catalina Island off the coast of California, but it soon adds other destinations, charging passengers up to $40,000 for a unique deep-sea adventure. And while combining tourism and research might seem like an awkward business plan, Stockton Rush finds a way to bring them together. He knows that tourists paying tens of thousands of dollars will have high expectations, and he can deliver a spectacular trip beneath the seas, but he's not a marine biologist. He can't tell his customers much about what they're seeing out the portholes, but thanks to his work with institutions like the University of Washington, he knows plenty of people who can. In early 2011, he reaches out to a marine biologist and invites him down to the jetty

• 11:55Lindsay Graham?

  where Antipodes is moored. With a showman's flourish, Rush gives the biologist a tour of the submersible. He opens the hatch and the two men climb in. They peer through the domed windows at either end, and while they're still crouched inside, Rush outlines his proposal. He'll transport the scientist to the bottom of the sea free of charge. In return, the biologist will serve as a guide for three paying passengers who will be with them. To Rush, it's a perfect arrangement. The scientist gets to carry out his research for free, and the tourists get a genuine expert on board. The biologist can even put the tourists to work, giving them simple survey tasks and turning them into citizen scientists. A few minutes later, Rush and the biologist climb out of Antipodes and back onto the jetty.

• 12:39Lindsay Graham?

  It's right there that the biologist extends his hand. Ocean Gate's offer is too good to refuse. Hiring a deep-water sub like this would normally blow his entire budget. Getting it for the cost of playing tour guide is an incredible deal. So the two men shake hands, sealing the deal with a grin. Over the next few months, Ocean Gate pushes ahead with its hybrid research and tourism strategy, and it works. Antipodes is regularly booked out. It's used to map the wreckage of the SS Governor, a ship that sank in Puget Sound in 1921. And on the other side of the continent, it surveys the coral reefs off Miami, Florida, where it even stumbles across a crashed WWII fighter plane on the seabed. With this business model proving a success,

• 13:22Lindsay Graham?

  Rush starts to dream even bigger and even deeper. But if he wants to take customers into the farthest depths of the ocean, he'll need a far more advanced sub than Antipodes. There's no suitable vessel on the second-hand market. So in 2013, Ocean Gate begins to design its own submersible. It's a pivotal moment that sparks a shift at the top of the company. Co-founder Guillermo Sonline's interests lie in exploration and research, not engineering. And recognizing that the company has moved on from its initial vision, he steps back from day-to-day operations. He still retains a minority stake in Ocean Gate, but now that the business is up and running, Stockton Rush is confident he can lead the company forward alone.

• 14:05Lindsay Graham?

  So Rush launches himself into the development of Ocean Gate's first custom-built submersible. Cyclops is created in collaboration with the University of Washington and the aviation giant Boeing. But this new vessel isn't built entirely from scratch. Ocean Gate acquires a 12-year-old submersible from a company in the Azores, then uses its cylindrical steel hull as the basis of Cyclops. Then, the Ocean Gate engineering team adds some innovations of their own, including a new maneuvering system, which they operate with an off-the-shelf Sony PlayStation controller. After two years in development, Cyclops is unveiled to the world in 2015 and immediately begins transporting paying passengers to underwater sites with expert guides onboard.

• 14:49Lindsay Graham?

  But not every mission goes according to plan. In June 2016, Cyclops embarked on a tourist excursion to the wreck of the Andrea Doria. This Italian ocean liner sank in 1956 off the coast of Nantucket after colliding with another ship. Since then, it's become an iconic destination for scuba divers. Lying on its side on the seabed, the liner is usually only accessible to the most daring and experienced. But now, though, thanks to Ocean Gate, the Andrea Doria is open to all. And as it descends into the depths, the metal walls of Cyclops vibrate faintly, the hum of its thrusters blending in with the muffled weight of the Atlantic pressing in from all sides.

• 15:30Lindsay Graham?

  Passenger David Lockridge shifts his weight carefully inside the cramped hull. He was recruited as Ocean Gate's Director of Marine Operations due to his years of experience as a submersible pilot, but today he's just along for the ride with the three paying passengers. It's his boss Stockton Rush who's at the controls.

• 15:52Lindsay Graham?

  Lockridge checks a gauge and then another. They're on the seabed, just over 160 feet beneath the surface. He peers through the upper porthole and his blood runs cold. The enormous, dark mass of the Andrea Doria looms over them, like a mountain rising out of the fog. Hey, Stockton, back up. We're too close. From the pilot's seat, Rush doesn't turn around. His eyes are locked on the murky, green water ahead. No, we're fine. I got it. We're drifting under the bow. Pull back. Rush waves a hand, shooing away the warning. Relax, we're just getting a better look. Lockridge presses a palm to the cold acrylic dome, trying to judge the distance through the haze. Hey, Stockton, I'm serious here. Reverse thrust, back away. Look, we're nowhere near...

• 16:37Lindsay Graham?

  The sub jolts. Lockridge almost topples over. Oh, we've hit her, Stockton. We've hit the wreck. I told you. Just back us out, okay? Lockridge shakes his head. He wants to say more, but he knows now's not the time. They shouldn't have an argument in front of the customers. Rush forces a smile for them. Hey, folks, sorry for that, just a little delay here. We told you, we told you we'd give you a close-up view. Rush toggles the controls for a few moments, but the submersible doesn't move. Hey, you want me to take over? That's fine, David, please, I'm the pilot, let me do this. But whatever he tries, the sub still won't move. They're pinned beneath the enormous ocean liner. Rush stares out the porthole, his jaw clenched.

• 17:19Lindsay Graham?

  Then, with a sudden frustrated motion, he shoves the controller into Lockridge's chest. Alright, fine, you do it. Are you sure? Yeah, just get us the hell out. Lockridge closes his hand around the controller, settles his breath, then slides into the pilot's seat. Okay, everyone, hold on.

• 17:39Lindsay Graham?

  David Lockridge toggles the thrusters, using gentle puffs at first to see how much play they have. The sub rocks a bit, scraping against the wreck again, but the nose lifts a fraction of an inch. Lockridge then angles the rear thrusters, pulses them carefully, and watches the sediment swirl around the porthole. Bit by bit, Cyclops shimmies backward, metal grinding on metal. Eventually, they slip free. David Lockridge has saved the sub, as well as the lives of everyone onboard, but he was too close for comfort, and he knows exactly who was to blame. Stockton Rush was reckless at the controls and ignored warnings. He can only hope now that Rush has learned his lesson.

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• 18:52Speaker 04

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• 19:48Lindsay Graham?

  Despite the near miss during the dive to the Andriadoria, the tourists aboard Cyclops don't seem to realize how close they came to disaster. When the sub returns to the surface, they gush with enthusiasm. They praise David Lockridge's steady handling of the vessel, and they can't stop talking about the eerie beauty of the wreck. As Ocean Gate CEO Stock and Rush listens to these excited tourists, their words confirm something he's noticed over the past few months. Shipwrecks ignite people's imaginations more than anything else in the sea. And if doomed ships sell tickets, then perhaps there's an easy way to supercharge Ocean Gate's growth. Rush decides he's going to lead expeditions to the most famous wreck of them all, the Titanic.

• 20:32Lindsay Graham?

  What if Ocean Gate is to offer trips to the Titanic, it will require another vehicle upgrade, a whole new submersible that can go even deeper. The wreck of the Titanic lies over two miles below the surface of the North Atlantic, far beyond the capabilities of the Cyclops. At those depths, the pressure reaches around 6,000 pounds per square inch. Even a pinprick-sized hole in the hull would create a jet of water so powerful, it would cut through flesh like a laser. All the previous submersibles that have made it to the Titanic were equipped with thick titanium hulls. But even though titanium is a lighter metal, its weight limits the size of the sub and the number of people it can carry. Three is the maximum. And that's no good to Rush.

• 21:16Lindsay Graham?

  To make tourist excursions to the Titanic a viable business, he will have to be able to carry three or four passengers on each trip, plus a pilot. So he rules out titanium and goes looking for a different approach. Together, they design a new craft built out of a material that's never been used on a deep-sea submersible before: carbon fiber. It's a strong but lightweight material made out of strands of almost pure carbon that are bundled together and embedded in resin. It's durable enough that it's already widely used in airplane wings, high-performance sports cars, and wind turbine blades. So Rush figures it's time to try it in submersibles. But there's a problem: no one knows for certain how carbon fiber will behave under such pressure.

• 22:00Lindsay Graham?

  Even multiple layers of the material may not be enough to withstand the crushing depths of the ocean, but that does not deter Rush. In his mind, he's a pioneer, and pioneers push forward where others fear to tread. So in January 2017, Ocean Gate signs a contract with a Sacramento-based company that specializes in carbon fiber. Its task: with designing and building the cylindrical hull of Cyclops II. Rush is eager to get on with it, and he gives the company just six weeks to complete the unique commission. At the same time, Rush also engages maritime engineering firm Hydrospace to construct the sub's main acrylic porthole. But Hydrospace CEO William Conan is a recognized expert in the field, and he points out a flaw in Rush's design.

• 22:45Lindsay Graham?

  When acrylic is used in submersible portholes, it's normally constructed in a dome shape that helps the material withstand the pressure of the ocean pushing inwards. But Rush wants a flat window, because he believes that will give the sub's occupants a better view. In the end, Conan agrees to compromise. He'll build a hybrid window, essentially a flatter-than-usual dome. But Conan stresses that the design is experimental, and Hydrospace is only willing to rate the window as safe to just over 2,000 feet, barely a sixth of the depth of the Titanic. But Stockton Rush has no intention of following that guidance. Instead, he claims that small cracks will appear in the acrylic if it's under too much pressure, and according to him, this will give the pilot enough notice to halt

• 23:30Lindsay Graham?

  a dive and return to the surface before the window shatters. So he presses on. As construction on Cyclops 2 continues, Rush goes looking for endorsements for his radical new design. He approaches the submersible entrepreneur, Rob McCallum. McCallum is well-known in the industry and one of the few people who have led expeditions to the Titanic before. He's happy to offer Ocean Gate advice on marketing and logistics, but Rush has a big rask. Rush wants him to give the Cyclops 2 his seal of approval by signing up as a consultant. McCallum doesn't immediately dismiss the idea, but before he can decide whether to join the company, he insists on seeing Ocean Gate's plans for himself.

• 24:11Lindsay Graham?

  So he travels to its headquarters in Everett, Washington, and there, amid drafting tables, 3D-printed parts, and half-finished components, Stockton Rush shows him the blueprints for the Cyclops 2. McCallum carefully looks over the cross-sections, hull diagrams, and pressure calculations. Beside him, Rush hovers. So, what do you think? Well, it's ambitious. Yeah, thank you. I think we're really breaking new ground here. Still needs to be matched with proven engineering, though, of course. Oh, yeah, of course. McCallum spreads several sheets out, side by side. So, let's talk specifics here. He points to a diagram showing the pilot's control console, a rectangle marked "Wireless

• 24:54Lindsay Graham?

  Controller Input" next to a drawing of a PlayStation controller. So, this is my first concern. I mean, it's a gaming device, right? Yeah, yeah, it looks funny, but it's proven hardware. Yeah, but proven for what? I mean, is Sony aware that it's being used in this way? It's not what it was designed for. It's also wireless. You have the controller talking to a Wi-Fi unit? No, it works on Bluetooth. Ah, so it's still talking to a computer, then, which is talking to the subthrusters. There are multiple points of failure. Well, the controller works perfectly well. We've tested it extensively. That may be true, but every submersible I've ever operated uses hardwired controls for a reason. I mean, if the signal drops out on this, where there's a dead battery or interference, you're screwed.

• 25:38Lindsay Graham?

  Yeah, but look, just because something hasn't been done before doesn't mean it shouldn't be done. I mean, if we're stuck to old methods forever, we'd never innovate. I'm not arguing against innovation, I'm arguing for reliability. I mean, Bluetooth? I can barely get my phone to stay connected to my headphones. I wouldn't want to rely on that 10,000 feet down. But Rob, this is the future. Lighter materials, smarter controls, new approaches. We can't keep building subs the same way people did 50 years ago. Again, I'm not telling you you should, but we can't ignore why things have been done that way for 50 years. People have learned some hard lessons, and I don't think this control system is safe. I'm afraid it's not the only problem I spotted. Rush's jaw tightens.

• 26:20Lindsay Graham?

  Well, problems are just challenges we haven't solved yet. By the time Rob McCallum walks out of Ocean Gate's headquarters, he's already made up his mind. He wants nothing to do with Cyclops 2. He's sure that Stockton Rush's radical new design is flawed, but McCallum can already tell that Rush is far too committed to the project to contemplate any changes. And as he expected, even though McCallum refuses to endorse the new submersible, Rush pushes ahead. In March 2017, Ocean Gate issues a press release announcing plans to dive to the Titanic with paying passengers aboard. The first expeditions are scheduled for May 2018, barely a year away.

• 27:01Lindsay Graham?

  Tickets cost the unusual number of $105,129, the exact price of the most expensive suite on the maiden voyage of the Titanic, adjusted for inflation. But despite that hefty price tag, it doesn't take long for the first customers to sign up. But even as Stockton Rush begins to sell seats on Cyclops 2, concerns are growing about its safety. In May 2017, the University of Washington ends its collaboration with Ocean Gate. Experts at UW's Applied Physics Laboratory suggest that elements of the submersible's design are not suitable for diving to extreme depths. There are even some within Ocean Gate that are worried. As Cyclops 2 nears completion in early 2018, Director of Marine Operations David Lockridge

• 27:46Lindsay Graham?

  inspects the vessel, and what he finds alarms him. He identifies several safety issues: components that don't meet specifications, systems that haven't been fully tested yet. But one thing concerns him more than any other: the porthole on the sub's bow. He's found out that the acrylic window is only certified to around a third of the depth required to reach the Titanic, and he's not happy. So on January 18, 2018, Lockridge puts his concerns in writing and emails his report to Rush. He expects some pushback, but the response he gets takes him by surprise. Lockridge is immediately summoned to a meeting, and inside a conference room at Ocean Gate headquarters, he finds Rush sitting alongside the Directors of Engineering and Quality Assurance.

• 28:31Lindsay Graham?

  Given what he thinks they're here to discuss, that's no surprise to Lockridge. But more unsettling is the presence of Bonnie Carl, Ocean Gate's Director of Finance and Administration. She's responsible for Human Resources, too, and suddenly, this looks less like an engineering conference and more like a disciplinary hearing. Lockridge's sense of unease heightens even further when Rush taps his phone and starts an audio recording. Lockridge knows that Rush likes to document Ocean Gate's milestones meticulously, but he rarely records internal meetings. Knowing that everything's being recorded, the mood in the room tightens. Rush opens by asking where Lockridge's concerns have come from. Lockridge explains that his worries aren't new. His doubts have been growing for some time.

• 29:15Lindsay Graham?

  He raised questions repeatedly, but he feels they've been overlooked. Hearing this, Rush pushes back. He defends the company's safety precautions and insists that Cyclops 2 won't be rushed to depth. Instead, it'll be gradually lowered, going a little deeper each time, with the effects monitored after every dive. In his view, neither the acrylic window nor the carbon fiber hull will fail without warning. There will be plenty of time to spot the danger signs and intervene. But Rush's central argument isn't really technical, it's philosophical. He points out that aviation pioneers did not carry out exhaustive modeling or wait for engineering committees to approve their designs. They took risks, and that's how progress was made. But Lockridge refuses to budge.

• 29:58Lindsay Graham?

  Cyclops 2 is unproven, and he won't support sending anyone down in it, not even Rush. The two men argue back and forth. The others in the room try to mediate, but neither is backing down. Lockridge realizes that one of them will have to go, and he knows that in the battle between him and the company's CEO, there's only ever going to be one winner.

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• 31:21Lindsay Graham?

  In the summer of 1881, U.S. Army Lieutenant Adolphus Greeley and 24 other men embarked on an ambitious scientific mission to the northernmost reaches of the Arctic. But despite several triumphs of discovery, the men would soon face tragedy. Hi, I'm Lindsay Graham, the host of the podcast American History Tellers. We take you to the events, times, and people that shaped America and Americans, our values, our struggles, and our dreams. In our latest series, after Adolphus Greeley and his men arrive at their destination more than 1,000 miles above the Arctic Circle, they get to work collecting scientific data and exploring the frigid landscape. But when resupply ships fail to reach them two summers in a row, they're forced to set out on a desperate search for rescue,

• 32:06Lindsay Graham?

  and not all of them will make it home. Follow American History Tellers wherever you get your podcasts. Audible subscribers can binge all episodes of American History Tellers' Greeley Arctic Expedition early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts.

• 32:34Lindsay Graham?

  David Lockridge's departure from Ocean Gate leaves the company with a gaping hole in its structure. As Director of Marine Operations, Lockridge handled almost every aspect of submersible activity: leading expeditions, training new pilots, and ensuring each and every dive ran safely and smoothly. So he will have to be replaced. But after both Lockridge and submersible entrepreneur Rob Callum raised concerns about Cyclops 2, Stockton Rush doesn't want another naysayer in the role. He can't face employing anyone with preconceived notions about how a submersible should work. They'll be skeptical of Cyclops 2's unconventional design features. And with less than six months until the first planned Titanic expedition,

• 33:18Lindsay Graham?

  Rush doesn't have time to train a newcomer in the Ocean Gate way. So in his mind, the safest move is to promote from within. But there is no one at Ocean Gate who comes close to Lockridge's experience and expertise. So Rush settles on an unexpected choice. He approaches Bonnie Carl, Ocean Gate's Head of Finance and Administration, and asks her to take over Lockridge's job. Rush believes he can train Carl quickly himself and thinks that a female pilot would be good for publicity. But Carl was in the room when Lockridge presented his safety concerns. Nothing she heard that day inspired confidence, so she has no intention of climbing inside Cyclops 2, let alone piloting it. So after Rush's surprise offer,

• 34:03Lindsay Graham?

  she quietly reaches out to a former employer. They're happy to have her back in an accounting role. And within two weeks of Lockridge's exit, Carl hands in her notice. But if Stockton Rush is troubled by this second sudden departure, he doesn't show it. He insists he'd rather run a lean operation than keep around someone who doesn't share his vision. In his mind, hesitation and doubt are obstacles to innovation.

• 34:29Lindsay Graham?

  But although Rush has put Carl and Lockridge firmly in the past, his former employees aren't all done with OceanGate yet. And Lockridge especially is determined to have his voice heard. Three weeks after his exit from OceanGate, Lockridge sits alone at home waiting. Normally at this time in the morning, he would be at work, surrounded by clanking machinery, the clatter of tools, and technicians waiting for instructions. But right now, there's just a low tick of the clock and the faint patter of rain against the windows.

• 35:01Lindsay Graham?

  But then, at precisely 11:00 a.m., his phone lights up. He straightens, clears his throat, and then answers. Hello, David Lockridge speaking. Hello, I'm calling from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration Whistleblower Protection Program. Is now still a good time? Yes, yes it is. Okay, great. Before we start, I will be recording this call. Is that all right by you? Yeah, sure. Okay, here we go. For the record, today is February 8, 2018, and I am conducting an intake interview of Mr. David Lockridge. So my supervisor forwarded your email, but why don't you start by telling me what's going on? Well, it's about my former employer, OceanGate. I was their Director of Marine Operations until January 19.

• 35:46Lindsay Graham?

  I was fired after raising safety concerns about their new submersible. Okay, safety concerns of what nature? Well, structural integrity, testing procedures, component specifications. Can you give me an example? Yeah, sure. So the porthole, for instance. For several months, I had been asking for all the documentation from the engineering director on the design and pressure testing of that window, but they refused to give it to me. Is that, is that normal behavior? Well, at every other company I've worked for, I got full disclosure. If I'm the pilot, I have to know what I'm getting into, that it's safe and it's secure. I just wanted to know the pressure rating for that window. All right, and you communicated these concerns to the company? Yes, I wrote up a full report and emailed it directly to the CEO Stockton Rush.

• 36:30Lindsay Graham?

  The next day, I was called into a meeting with senior staff, but instead of addressing any of the issues I raised, they questioned my judgment. Stockton claimed that pioneers can't wait for perfect data, or whatever, and then I was fired. I see. But, I mean, just to be clear, I haven't brought this to your attention because I was fired. Look, I can get another job. It's that if they send this sub to the Titanic, I'm just worried what will happen. There are passengers, passengers who have paid a hundred thousand dollars each, and they're not safe in that thing. All right, well, Mr. Lockridge, based on what you've already submitted and what you've just told me, you have the right to file a formal whistleblower report, and that would trigger an official review into the potential safety violations and alleged retaliation. Well, that's what I want. I want this on record. Okay, understood.

• 37:14Lindsay Graham?

  So let me walk you through the process. You'll need to provide the documentation you mentioned, emails, technical notes, anything that supports your concerns. Great, I've kept everything. Okay, good. And then, once the report is filed, OSHA will begin a preliminary investigation. You should also be aware that this may involve contacting Ocean Gate. Yeah, no problem, I expected that. You're doing the right thing, Mr. Lockridge. Not everyone is willing to take a step like this. It's not really about me, it's about the people they're planning to put in that sub. I mean, someone has to protect them. In the days that followed David Lockridge's interview, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, or OSHA, sends Ocean Gate a formal letter informing them that an investigation is underway.

• 37:57Lindsay Graham?

  Although it doesn't name Lockridge, Stockton Rush has no doubt who's responsible. Ocean Gate replies to the letter with a five-page rebuttal addressing Lockridge's complaints and including the audio recording of the dismissal meeting as evidence. Privately, Rush then sets his lawyers on the case. He gives them instructions to sue Lockridge for breaching the confidentiality clause in his contract and making fraudulent claims against Ocean Gate. But by now, Lockridge isn't the only person raising the alarm. One of Ocean Gate's initial design partners also has concerns.

• 38:31Lindsay Graham?

  Several years ago, Rush commissioned Boeing to help design his first carbon fiber submersible, and they remained involved in a limited capacity on Cyclops 2. But when Boeing engineer Mark Negley reviews an analysis of the submersible's carbon fiber hull, the results shock him. According to his calculations, the hull might not survive the pressure at the depth of the Titanic. So in March 2018, Negley emails Ocean Gate directly with his findings. At the company's headquarters, Director of Engineering Tony Nissen scrolls through Negley's report on his laptop. It's eye-catching stuff. One graph shows the predicted strain on the submersible's hull at different depths. Negley has included a skull and crossbones at 13,000 feet, only just beyond the depth

• 39:16Lindsay Graham?

  of the Titanic. That means every time it goes to the wreck, Cyclops 2 will be right on the limit of what its hull can safely handle. So after he's finished reading the report, Nissen picks up his laptop and immediately goes looking for his boss, Stockton Rush. He finds him in a corner of the workshop, polishing the gleaming white hull of Cyclops 2. But when Nissen tries to talk to him about the report, Rush just waves it away. He says that he has total faith in the carbon fiber hull, and even if there is a risk, they have a safeguard: the acoustic monitoring system. According to Rush, carbon fiber panels don't suddenly fail when placed under strain. They're made up of millions of strands of carbon, each with its own breaking point.

• 39:59Lindsay Graham?

  So the hull of the Cyclops 2 will be embedded with tiny microphones. They're designed to pick up the noise of those strands snapping and alert the crew. A few weak fibers breaking should be nothing to worry about. But if the frequency increases, that will indicate a critical break is about to occur, and at that point, the Cyclops 2 pilot can simply stop the descent and return the sub safely to the surface. Essentially, the microphones will act as a real-time early warning system, ensuring the sub will never be put in a situation where the hull can fail. Nissan listens. He knows the theory, but he also knows the system has never been tested at extreme depths. So just to be safe, he suggests bringing Boeing back in to run

• 40:41Lindsay Graham?

  more scans, checking the hull for imperfections. But Stockton Rush shakes his head. He thinks that Boeing is only trying to cover themselves. In his eyes, their engineers are trapped in a culture of fear and bureaucracy, the same overly cautious mindset that slows down innovation everywhere. So rather than carry out the investigation negatively recommended in his report, Rush decides to sever ties with Boeing altogether. And with that split comes another change. In a symbolic gesture designed to show that Ocean Gate is breaking with the past, Rush announces a new name for his revolutionary submersible. Going forward, Cyclops II is no more. From now on, Ocean Gate's flagship vessel will be known as the Titan.

• 41:26Lindsay Graham?

  From Audible Originals and Airship, this is episode two of the Titan Submersible Disaster for American Scandal. In our next episode, driven by ambition and convinced the rules don't apply to him, Stockton Rush pushes Titan deeper and deeper, setting the stage for catastrophe.

• 41:46Lindsay Graham?

  American Scandal is only possible because of listeners like you, so thank you. And don't miss an episode. Be sure to follow American Scandal on Audible or wherever you get your podcasts. And Audible subscribers can binge new seasons of American Scandal early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts. And to find out more about me, including my other podcasts, my live show, the history tours I'm arranging, and all sorts of other things, go to historyishuman.com. That's historyishuman.com.

• 42:19Lindsay Graham?

  If you'd like to learn more about the Titan Submersible Disaster, we recommend the documentaries Titan: The Ocean Gate Disaster from Netflix and Implosion: The Titan Subdisaster from the BBC. This episode contains reenactments and dramatized details. And while in most cases we can't know exactly what was said, all our dramatizations are based on historical research. American Scandal is hosted, edited, and executive produced by me, Lindsay Graham, for Airship. This episode is written and researched by Scott Reeves, senior producer Andy Beckerman, managing producer Emily Burke, fact checking by Alyssa Jung Perry, audio editing by Mohammed Shazib, original music by Thrum, sound design by Gabriel Gould. Executive producer for Airship is William Simpson.

• 43:03Lindsay Graham?

  Executive producer for Audible is Jenny Lauer Beckman. Head of creative development at Audible, Kate Navin. Head of Audible Originals North America, Marshall Louis. And chief content officer, Rachel Giatza. Copyright 2026 by Audible Originals LLC. Sound recording copyright 2026 by Audible Originals LLC.

• 43:29Speaker 06

  There are books that change how you see the world, and there are books that change how you see yourself. In a new podcast series, A Great Book with Barack Obama, President Obama sits down with a series of surprising and sharp guests to explore six books that have shaped his life and perspective on the world. From Song of Solomon and the Fire Next Time, to All the Pretty Horses and Gilead, the president is joined by guests like Tom Hanks and Ta-Nehisi Coates to reflect on how these timeless stories shaped his thinking on everything from fatherhood to leadership, and discover together what they tell us about the world we live in and the world we want to create.

• 44:12Speaker 06

  Audible subscribers can listen to all episodes of A Great Book with Barack Obama ad-free right now, plus access each audiobook discussed in the series. Download the Audible app today.