707. The Terror: How The French Revolution Collapsed Into Chaos (Part 1)

How did the infamous murder of Jean-Paul Marat, one of the great firebrands of the French Revolution, unleash the bloody Terror? Why did the clashing political factions of the Revolution escalate the fractious atmosphere in France? And, which other apocalyptic threats saw the French masses clamouring for the blood of their brothers? Join Dominic and Tom as they launch into one of the most violent events in all world history: The Reign of Terror in Revolutionary France, and the murder of Marat, which served as one of its catalysts. _______ Join The Rest Is History Club: Unlock the full experience of the show – with exclusive bonus episodes, ad-free listening, early access to every series and live show tickets, a members-only newsletter, discounted books from the show, and access to our private Discord chatroom. Sign up directly at the⁠⁠restishistory.com⁠ To read our new newsletter, sign up at: ⁠therestishistory.com/newsletters⁠ Advertise with us: ⁠[email protected] _______ Twitter: @TheRestHistory @holland_tom @dcsandbrook Video Editors: Jack Meek, Harry Swan + Adam Thornton Social Producer: Harry Balden Producers: Tabby Syrett & Aaliyah Akude Senior Producer: Callum Hill Executive Producer: Dom Johnson Learn more about your ad choices. Visit podcastchoices.com/adchoices

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• 0:01Speaker 00

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• 0:42Speaker 00

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• 0:58Tom Holland?

  This episode is supported by Anthropic, the team behind Claude. Now, history's biggest leaps started as hard questions that people didn't want asked.

• 1:10Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah, there's a classic example of that at the end of the 15th century. And the hard question in particular was, what is out there beyond the Atlantic Ocean to the west? And as you will know, the man who found the answer to that question was the explorer Christopher Columbus. And he realizes, or rather, everybody else realizes, that there is a vast continent out there, and it is, of course, the Americas. So Anthropic knows the importance of questions, and it's why Anthropic is founded on one hard question above all. How can we ensure for the AI revolution really goes well for ordinary people?

• 1:41Tom Holland?

  So they asked over 100,000 people, and what came back wasn't just fear, there was hope as well. People wanted to know, will cancer ever be cured? Can kids have a better future? It turns out that there is hope in hard questions.

• 1:55Dominic Sandbrook?

  Ask yours at claude.ai/restishistory and keep thinking.

• 2:04Tom Holland?

  This episode is brought to you by the Gates Foundation. We have touched on the fall of the Roman Empire a few times on this show, haven't we? But what our listeners may not know is that among the causes that historians talk about, it's not just barbarian invasions, there's also talk of a disease which people call Roman fever, which I believe we know now as malaria. For thousands of years, humanity was defenseless against it. But thankfully, we live in a time of incredible ingenuity, and American scientists and partners around the world are fighting back with support from the Gates Foundation.

• 2:40Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yes, so they're creating a new generation of bed nets that kill up to 90% of mosquitoes. That leads to a 50% drop in malaria, saving lives, and protecting vulnerable communities. The Gates Foundation, partners of human potential. Search gatesfoundation.org/mosquito to learn more.

• 3:13Tom Holland?

  How long, Frenchman, will you put up with disorder and divisions? Oh, Frenchman, a little longer, and all that will remain of you is the memory of your existence. Already the provinces are marching on Paris. Already half of our empire burns with the fire of discord and civil war. There is still a way to extinguish it, but that way must be swift. Already, the vilest of villains, Marat, whose name alone is the image of all crimes, is falling under the avenging blade, shaking the mountain and making Danton and Robespierre pale, those other brigands seated on this bloody throne.

• 3:57Tom Holland?

  Your peace depends on the execution of the law. I am not undermining it by killing Marat. Condemned by the universe, he is outside the law. What court will judge me? Let my last breath be useful to my fellow citizens. Let my head, held aloft in Paris, be a rallying point for all the friends of the law. Let the universe declare that I deserved well of humanity. Frenchman, I have shown you the way. You know your enemies. Rise up. Strike. So a very punchy manifesto there, and it had a very catchy title, Address to the French

• 4:42Tom Holland?

  Friends of Law and Peace. And it was found on a young woman who was arrested in Paris on the 13th of July, 1793. And the name of this young woman, Charlotte Corday, 24 years old, strikingly good-looking. Everyone commented on this all the time. And of course, her looks and her youth made her arrest all the more of a sensation because she was charged with the assassination of perhaps the single most controversial man in France. A radical journalist, a revolutionary firebrand, the supreme champion of terror, Jean-Paul Marat.

• 5:28Tom Holland?

  And it is one of the most famous episodes in French history, the murder of Marat. The pretty young woman who comes from the provinces, talks her way into Marat's apartment, finds him soaking his pustule-ridden body in a bath, pulls out a knife, plunges it deep into his chest. A scene famously painted by Jacques-Louis David, one of the most famous illustrations of the French Revolution ever painted. But Dominic, it's not just an incredibly exciting story in and of itself, is it?

• 6:06Tom Holland?

  It is also the trigger for perhaps the most celebrated, the most notorious passage of the entire revolution, the passage that is known as the terror.

• 6:19Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah, exactly right. I'd say it's one of the most thrilling moments in all world history. I remember doing it at school, just absolutely loving it. The moment in 1793, 1794, when you should say France descends into the reign of terror. So loads of people will be familiar with the images of this. The triumph of Madame Guillotine, you've seen it in films, you've seen it in video games and books, whatever. The carts rattling through the streets loaded with prisoners, the old women, the tweakers knitting at the foot of the guillotine. They're going to mob, howling for blood as the blade begins to fall. It's something that English writers in particular have always adored. They're turning the melodrama right up to the maximum.

• 7:00Dominic Sandbrook?

  So Dickens in A Tale of Two Cities, or Hilary Mantel in A Place of Greater Safety. But in this series, we will be looking behind those images to explore exactly what happened and why. And we have an amazing cast of characters. So we'll be talking about the revolutionaries, people like Danton and Robespierre. We've got an amazing episode to come on the execution of Marie Antoinette. And then we have today's protagonist, the man who kicks off the whole story. And he really is an extraordinarily grotesque and fascinating character with his lovely blisters and his squint and his vehement rhetoric, and that is Jean-Paul Marat.

• 7:41Dominic Sandbrook?

  So Marat is actually born in what's now Switzerland in 1743, in a small town. His father was a Sardinian friar who converted to Calvinism. So as a little boy, Marat is something he has in common with a lot of revolutionary figures. He's very ambitious. He said later, of five, I wanted to be a schoolmaster, at 15, a professor, at 18, an author, and at 20, a creative genius. Actually, he's none of those things. He moves to France initially, and then he goes off to London, lives in London. And he arrives in London when London is gripped by the great controversy about the radical journalist and MP, John Wilkes. And Wilkes is a great sort of newspaperman who's always slacking off the British government and the establishment and corruption.

• 8:25Dominic Sandbrook?

  And this is a great influence on Marat. He's really taken with Wilkes's radical style and his, you know, his sort of invocation of the ordinary people against the corrupt metropolitan elite. And Marat will obviously take that and then turn that up to 11. But in the short term, his real enthusiasm is medicine. So he writes a thesis on gonorrhea. He manages to wangle a degree in absentia from St Andrews. I don't think he ever went to St Andrews. And then he went into the wellness industry.

• 8:57Tom Holland?

  He's based in Newcastle for five years, isn't he? So presumably he speaks English with a a Geordie accent.

• 9:03Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah, he goes around peddling these mad cures for venereal disease. If you have bad eyesight, you, of course, like me, Tom, wear glasses. He would prescribe you electrotherapy for your eyes. It would definitely change your eyesight. I don't think whether it would make it better. The sizzling of your eyeballs. This doesn't really work out. He comes back to Paris. He establishes himself as an experimental scientist. He basically puts his money from the wellness industry, what money he's made, into making his own laboratory. He claims to have proved that fire is an igneous fluid.

• 9:36Tom Holland?

  And what would that have meant?

• 9:37Dominic Sandbrook?

  Meant that previous views about fire were wrong, and that actually people needed to appreciate the fluidity of fire.

• 9:43Tom Holland?

  I mean, how would he malatise that?

• 9:44Dominic Sandbrook?

  He wouldn't. That's the problem. He also said that Newton was a fool. Newton's theories of light and colour were totally wrong. And he claimed to have written papers proving that Newton was an idiot.

• 9:55Tom Holland?

  I mean, isn't that what Einstein does, basically?

• 9:57Dominic Sandbrook?

  Those Einstein and Marat parallel lives?

• 9:59Tom Holland?

  Genius ahead of his time.

• 10:00Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah, maybe. Anyway, Marat submitted these findings to the French Royal Academy of Sciences, and they said, this is idiocy from you. You know, they rejected him. And he felt humiliated. Now, actually, Robert Danton, the great historian of 18th century France, points out that this feeling of humiliation on the part of a provincial young man is very, very common among the leaders of the revolution. You know, you can go through a lot of these characters, and they are from the provinces, they're from small towns, they've come to the big city, they feel rejected and ostracised by this sort of establishment figures. And this fuels a lot of their rage once the revolution starts.

• 10:40Tom Holland?

  I mean, isn't that the stereotype of revolutionaries, that it's people who've got just enough academic background to feel that they deserve better of society and then don't get it?

• 10:51Dominic Sandbrook?

  Exactly. It's people who've spent a lot of time down kind of YouTube rabbit holes. And they're not idiots, but they feel rejected by the sort of, you know, big science or big history, or whatever it might be. So this is Marat. By the late 1780s, he's a very lonely, bitter, disappointed man. Everyone thinks he's a crank and a charlatan. He's struggling to make ends meet. And then, bang, summer of 1789, France convulsed by political and economic crisis. Louis XVI runs out of money, gets into a mess politically, recalling the estates general, mob storms the Bastille, and this disorder escalates into what we

• 11:30Dominic Sandbrook?

  would call the French Revolution. And Marat seizes his chance. He basically thinks back to John Wilkes in London, when he was there all those years ago, 1770s or something. And he says, bang, this is what I'm going to do. I'm going to reinvent myself as a radical polemicist, set up my own newspaper, The People's Friend, L'Ami du Pup.

• 11:52Tom Holland?

  So basically, the the cause of the French Revolution is the British press?

• 11:57Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah. I mean, that's, you heard it here first.

• 11:59Tom Holland?

  The model of British journalism is what triggers it all.

• 12:03Dominic Sandbrook?

  But we know where to stop, Tom, and that's the difference. So, well, Marat goes well beyond the tone of the British press, the 18th century British press. He has this incredibly violent and messianic tone in his writings from the very beginning. There's a brilliant new biography came out, I think this year, or maybe late last year, by the historian Keith Michael Baker, The Kind of New Definitive Life of Marat. And Baker sees Marat as the first modern populist. And to pick out a couple of his elements of his appeal. I mean, these are obviously old things. They go back a long way, but Marat reinvents them for a new age. One of them is the invocation of the people with a capital P. So the people

• 12:45Dominic Sandbrook?

  are constantly in danger of being betrayed by appeasers and traitors. That's a huge part of modern populism, and it's part of Marat's journalism. Marat is obsessed with conspiracies. He says quite explicitly, my aim is to keep my readers constantly alert. If I don't keep them alert, they will fall back into the abyss and they'll be dragged there by royalists and priests and other ne'er-do-wells who are all plotting against the people.

• 13:08Tom Holland?

  I mean, it's the idea of, you know, wake up sheeple. If the truth that is motivating all these awful things that are happening is revealed, then you, as someone who has been illuminated, stand actually above the mass of the people. So Marat's calling himself a friend of the people, but he's also offering a kind of privileged status to those who read him.

• 13:30Dominic Sandbrook?

  Completely. And actually, you are quite right. The language of waking and sleeping, Marat uses that a lot. We're so familiar with that now, both on the right and of course on the left, hence, are you woke? Marat would have been very, very familiar with that. And he, his argument was always, to wake people up, you need to be provocative, confrontational, indeed violent. That could be rhetorical violence, or it could be physical violence, but only extreme language and extreme behaviour can rouse the masses from their slumber. So their eyes are opened to the horrors of the conspiracy that threatens them.

• 14:09Tom Holland?

  And I suppose at this point, to slightly extenuating circumstance for him, is that he doesn't know quite what the matches are that he's playing with.

• 14:19Dominic Sandbrook?

  No, I suppose he doesn't. But Marat's instinct is always to, to keep lighting those matches.

• 14:24Tom Holland?

  Yeah, and chucking them onto sticks of gelatinite.

• 14:27Dominic Sandbrook?

  He doesn't have an off button. I don't think he'd ever have had an off button, frankly. Anyway, the revolution spirals out of control in the early 1790s, and Marat becomes one of its most controversial outspoken figures. This is very deliberate from him. So rather as in the last few years, you'd see people on social media saying, you know, civility is a political choice. We don't have a, you know, we don't want to be civil. We want to be confrontational because the crisis facing our civilisation is so great. Marat sees charm, politeness, courtesy as fake, and a sign of treason, actually. It's because it's fake, you are treasonous if you are polite and polished.

• 15:07Tom Holland?

  And I suppose also that, I mean, as with social media today, so then, attracting hate can become a measure of status.

• 15:15Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah, completely, completely. Marat has a, I mean, he actually has this sort of martyr complex. He's constantly talking about how his life is in danger, how plotters and traitors are out to get him. Now, actually, the argument that civility and charm are treacherous is very convenient for Marat because he's an extremely uncivil and charmless man. Everybody agrees. He's hideously ugly. He's thin. He's shabby. He's kind of twitchy. He has this shock of unkempt black hair. He's a bit cross-eyed. And above all, he has this absolutely dreadful skin condition. And people have spent a lot of ink discussing whether it's syphilis, which it probably wasn't. The diagnosis now is chronic dermatitis herpetiformis. I don't really know what that means, but it's bad.

• 15:59Tom Holland?

  And it's getting worse, isn't it?

• 16:00Dominic Sandbrook?

  It is, yeah. And it will flare up when he's under stress.

• 16:03Tom Holland?

  And the cure for that is a bath, right?

• 16:05Dominic Sandbrook?

  Well, that's the only thing that will soothe it. He comes out in these terrible blisters and sores, so he takes a bath.

• 16:10Tom Holland?

  So he has to have a soak?

• 16:11Dominic Sandbrook?

  He has a soak.

• 16:12Tom Holland?

  And he's very small, isn't he? He's only about five foot, I think.

• 16:14Dominic Sandbrook?

  He's a sort of wizened man. He's like Yoda. And although he doesn't sound like a great catch, he does actually, in 1792, he goes through a sort of atheistical marriage ceremony with a woman called Simone Evra, who was 21 years his junior, and was a sort of Marat groupie.

• 16:31Tom Holland?

  Right.

• 16:31Dominic Sandbrook?

  So he's not exactly a catch. He's a terrible husband, I would imagine. But anyway, he's got this wife, so that's nice. Most of the other revolutionaries can't stand Marat. They find him very, very objectionable company. So Corday, in the speech you read, his assassin, she bracketed him with Danton and Robespierre. But neither Danton nor Robespierre actually liked Marat or really enjoyed hanging around with him. They thought he's, you know, he's extreme, he's histrionic, he's much too bloodthirsty, he's always shouting and ranting, and he's just extremely unpleasant company. Other sort of apostles of the terror would say, he doesn't pay for his drinks, he catches off you, he borrows money, he doesn't pay it back. He's just basically an incredibly unpleasant man.

• 17:16Tom Holland?

  I suppose also what he does, though, is to push to extremes, arguments that people like Danton and Robespierre are making, that we need to react firmly to counter-revolution or whatever. Marat is saying, we basically need to bathe France in blood.

• 17:32Dominic Sandbrook?

  Completely. So from the beginning, he's talking about killing people. 600 heads in 1790, 1791, he's talking about 200,000, 300,000 people. And this is not just empty rhetoric. So in 1792, France is at war, the Prussians are advancing on Paris, and it's Marat who urges the street kind of militants, the sans-culottes, the trouserless sort of masses, to break into the prisons and to slaughter one and a half thousand inmates of the prisons. And Marat said, this is justice. This will deter these legions of traitors. So this has real world consequences. You know, he is encouraging the massacre of hundreds and hundreds of people. And moderates, even people who supported the revolution but were

• 18:17Dominic Sandbrook?

  moderate, came to hate Marat. So in his book on the French Revolution, Peter McPhee cites a club in Grandville in Normandy. And this club issued a resolution. It called Marat the provocer of murder who is leading a disgusting faction of blood. But in Paris, which is his kind of heartland, Marat is very popular. He's seen as the tribune of the common man. And a week after these prison massacres, he's elected to represent Paris in the new national convention. So the national convention is going to be playing a huge part in our story in this series. And this is the new sort of legislature of France, and it meets at first in the old riding school, the manège, in the Tuileries Gardens, in the gardens

• 18:59Dominic Sandbrook?

  of the royal palace. And the mood of this new convention is very well suited to Marat's style. Because this winter, 1792 to 1793, under the pressure of the economic and military crises that the revolution is facing, it's beginning to tear itself apart. So to paint a picture of the scene in this convention building. You have about 750, largely young men, inexperienced, a lot of them from the provinces originally, very passionate, very idealistic. They're all dressed, I mean, and we'll talk about this in a future episode, I know, they wear this sort of revolutionary uniform, there's long black overcoats and these big kind of leather boots. They will

• 19:43Dominic Sandbrook?

  be debating for 12 hours at a time, arguing about the new society they're trying to build. And then all night, they will be staying up to read letters and study paperwork. And all the time, they're getting drunk. By and large, they're a very particular kind of people. I already said they're idealistic young men. So the young, they're all Republicans, although there are lots of lawyers and writers, they're from middle-class backgrounds, and they're steeped in the values of the Enlightenment. So they've all read their Jean Jacques Rousseau.

• 20:10Tom Holland?

  Yeah, Rousseau is the dominating influence, isn't he?

• 20:13Dominic Sandbrook?

  He is, exactly. But within the convention, there are now two factions, we've talked about them in previous series, who are competing for people's allegiance. So on the one hand, you have a faction called the Girondins, and they really have had their upper hand for the last year or so. And they are led, I mean, let's just reduce them very simplistically to two people, a former anti-slavery journalist called Jacques Pierre Prisot, and there's a woman called Madame Roulin, presiding at a literary salon. And by and large, massive generalisation, but by and large, their power base are the kind of high-minded, bien pensant, upper-middle classes of the big provincial cities like Bordeaux, Marseille.

• 20:56Tom Holland?

  And particularly Bordeaux, right? Because the name Girondins comes from the Girond and Bordeaux is just downriver from the Girond estuary.

• 21:04Dominic Sandbrook?

  Exactly. So they're kind of mercantile, self-improving.

• 21:09Tom Holland?

  Yeah. And the mercantile aspect is important, isn't it? Because they are, there's a, I mean, maybe slightly anachronistic, but they are kind of free market in their attitude towards economics, whereas we will see their opponents are much more dirigist. So there's a slight Roy Jenkins against Tony Benn.

• 21:27Dominic Sandbrook?

  Do you know, I was just about to say, they're people who would have been in the SDP in the 1980s, I think, the Girondins.

• 21:33Tom Holland?

  Oh, good. I'm glad I got that right.

• 21:34Dominic Sandbrook?

  That will mean nothing to anyone who's not British. In fact, it'll mean nothing to anybody who's not British or who's under 50. But, you know.

• 21:39Tom Holland?

  For people who've read your books, it would mean a great deal.

• 21:42Dominic Sandbrook?

  Precisely, to both of those people.

• 21:43Tom Holland?

  It's a self-selecting elite, Dominic.

• 21:46Dominic Sandbrook?

  An important thing about the Girondins, they're not a Parisian party. So they're not, they don't have a lot of strength in the streets of Paris. Now, on the other hand, the other people, the other big faction are what's called the Montagnards, the Mountain. And they're called the Mountain because they sit high up in the left-hand side of the convention. There's about 200 of them. They're more radical, more militant. And the Montagnards are big in Paris. They are dominated by some of the best-known figures of the revolution, more radical figures. So you've got Robespierre, who we'll be talking about next time, Maximilian Robespierre, cold, chilly, self-consciously virtuous, you know, the incarnation of kind of republican purity. And then you've got Georges Danton, who is

• 22:28Dominic Sandbrook?

  a big man, big appetites, earthy, corrupt, the sort of slightly more Churchillian, I suppose.

• 22:35Tom Holland?

  It's some, it's you and me, basically.

• 22:37Dominic Sandbrook?

  Basically, yes. I didn't want to say it. So what's the difference between the Girondins and the Montagnards? It really boils down to two things. I think the Montagnards, like Marat, they idealise the people. They are ultra-populist. The Girondins, the sort of more high-minded types, are a little bit more suspicious of the people. They're more paternalistic. They want to be the people directing the revolution. They're anxious about giving too much power to the streets. The Girondins also, and this is allied to that, they think the revolution is in danger of tipping into kind of, you know, an audio bloodshed. They want to rein back on the violence of it. Whereas the Montagnards, I mean, this is putting it very simplistically, they see the violence as necessary, even

• 23:21Dominic Sandbrook?

  healthy, to build the better world they want. So, for example, when they scrapped the monarchy, which they did in the autumn of 1972, the Montagnards said, we've got to get rid of Louis XVI. The Girondins were much more squeamish about it. You know, this one man, do we really need to get rid of him, all of this? And so their enemies, the Girondins' critics said, hold on, are these guys committed to the revolution or not? Because, you know, you can't make an omelette, and are they prepared to break the eggs?

• 23:49Tom Holland?

  Well, these people start to say that they are actively royalists, don't they? And the Mountain.

• 23:53Dominic Sandbrook?

  Exactly, same. So if we fast forward to the, the spring of 1793, this feud between these two factions is so bitter, it's probably only going to end one way. I mean, somebody's going to lose their heads. And on the 13th of March, 1793, a great Girondins speaker, who was regarded as actually the best speaker in the convention, a guy called Pierre Vernieu, he issued this famous prophecy. He said, we are in danger of destroying ourselves in all these squabbles. We will be like Saturn, devouring his children, and this will all end in a dictatorship. And of course, how prescient he was, he was quite right. The irony, though, is actually when you look at Vernieu's speech, he says this in the course

• 24:35Dominic Sandbrook?

  of this massive partisan factional tirade against the Montagnards. So, you know, he's only kind of got himself to blame to some degree. And that tells you how toxic the situation has become. And it's so toxic precisely because France in 1793 is gripped by two massive existential crises. So the first one is economic meltdown. So France has had a succession of absolutely terrible harvests. The nationwide grain market has broken down. The government is running out of money to pay for the war against the Austrians and the Prussians. They've been printing paper money, the assiniers, as it's called. They've got four billion of these assiniers on the market in early 1793, and that has triggered

• 25:18Dominic Sandbrook?

  this colossal inflation. Bread prices, sugar and whatnot, going through the roof. There were shortages. There are protests almost every day at markets. There are women marching in the streets of Paris. It's not great.

• 25:32Tom Holland?

  I mean, women are really a vital part of this story, because they kind of emerged as a huge force on the streets of Paris over the spring of 1793. But also, Dom, just to say, that these are exactly the circumstances that led to the revolution in the first place and the storming of the Bastille. And I suppose part of what makes the situation so toxic is that people, particularly those who are very poor, those who are on the verge of starvation, are thinking, well, we've had the revolution, things should have improved, they haven't improved, therefore someone must be to blame for the fact that they haven't improved. You know, there must be traitors. And so it's generating, you know, it's fuelling that mood of conspiracy that Marat is harnessing so effectively.

• 26:15Dominic Sandbrook?

  It totally is. And there's the emergence of a group in 1793 who are exploiting precisely this sentiment. They're called the Enragés, so the enraged or the madmen.

• 26:25Tom Holland?

  So basically, people on social media.

• 26:28Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah. They basically go around saying, the working class poor are being betrayed, we need state intervention, we need massive price controls, massive redistribution of wealth, you know, the revolution needs to go much further. And the really disturbing thing about these Enragés is they have moustaches. And this is seen as a sign of kind of virile working-class militancy. And a lot of the sort of more middle-class revolutionaries are very shocked by these people's moustaches. Now, the other big existential threat is the war. So the war, I mean, the mad thing is the French started the war.

• 27:03Tom Holland?

  And also, particularly the Girondins are massively keen on it, weren't they? And people like Ross Pierre were massively against it. So if the war goes badly, then the Girondins are in real trouble.

• 27:14Dominic Sandbrook?

  Completely. The Girondins started it. They thought, they wanted to export the ideals of the revolution. They thought it would bring France together under their leadership. They declared war on Austria in April, 1792. Then the Prussians joined in. And this has basically went badly for France, and it turned into a struggle for national survival. Now, so far, France's deadliest enemy, Britain, has stayed out. But British public opinion, well, certainly high political opinion, was shocked by the execution of the King Louis XVI. William Pitt, the Prime Minister, called it the foulest and most atrocious act the world has ever seen. And there was a sort of sentiment, I think, among the British

• 27:55Dominic Sandbrook?

  political classes, the beginning of 1793. The French revolution is now totally out of control. It's going to spread across its borders. It's a threat to world peace, and we're going to, at some point, we're going to have to stop it. The extraordinary thing is that even though Britain is a very dangerous opponent, you know, with its finances, its industry, and above all, its navy. The revolutionaries in Paris are absolutely gagging for a chance to have a crack at the British. So even before the execution of the king, Jean-Jeanne d'Antepty told the National Convention, he said, "The British Empire is basically just waiting for us to come and conquer it. We'll take India, we'll take the Caribbean. It is on the ruins of the Tower of London that we will sign the treaty which will establish the freedom

• 28:40Dominic Sandbrook?

  of the world." And once again, it's the Convention, it's France that declares war first. They declared war on Britain and the Dutch Republic on the 1st of May, 1793. The Montagnard deputy, Georges Couton, "We can liberate Europe in six months and purge the earth of all tyrants." I mean, this is the way they talk, you know, this incredibly idealistic, impatient, kind of restless rhetoric.

• 29:01Tom Holland?

  But also that weird thing about the French Revolution, that it's simultaneously nationalistic and universal in its ambitions, and it never quite decide between the two.

• 29:09Dominic Sandbrook?

  No. Well, I think they see the two as the same, don't they? Basically, everyone will turn into France, and that'll be great for them. So in practical terms, what this means is that France is now at war on almost every frontier. It's fighting Britain, Holland, Prussia, Austria, and soon it'll be fighting Spain as well. It's fighting Britain and later Spain in the Caribbean. It's also facing a massive slave rebellion, slave revolution, on the crucial sugar island of Saint-Domingue, future Haiti.

• 29:38Tom Holland?

  And because it's taken on Britain, it now risks the classic British technique in a war, which is to use the navy to impose an economic blockade. So that's not going to help with the French economy. And also, the British fleet can move to areas on the coast in France that are counter-revolutionary.

• 30:00Dominic Sandbrook?

  Exactly, particularly in the south, in the south and the west. So France is in danger of being completely embattled, surrounded, encircled, and so on and so forth. And to fight all these threats, the military desperately needs more manpower. So on the 24th of February, 1793, the Convention votes to draft 300,000 more men, and it issues quotas to officials across the countryside. This is the number of people you need to get. And in rural areas, this is colossally unpopular. And this goes back to a point you made about the economy. So the historian Timothy Tackett says, puts it this way. He says, "In the eyes of many rural citizens, the revolution had taken away their priests, killed their king, and raised their taxes. Now, the Convention wanted to send them off

• 30:44Dominic Sandbrook?

  to die in a war hundreds of kilometres from their homes, while many of those who had started and supported the war remained in their towns to count the taxes." So if you're a peasant, this is very, very alarming. And nowhere is this more contentious than in a region, so it's just south of Nantes when you look on the maps, that sort of rural west-central France on the Atlantic, and this is called the Vendee. And the Vendee is a very distinctive part of the country. It's got an unusual landscape, kind of woods and fields, separated by this very, very high hedgerows. And people live in these tiny villages scattered across this landscape, or in isolated farms.

• 31:26Dominic Sandbrook?

  The local aristocracy in the Vendee lived on the land. They were quite close to the peasants by and large, they had good relations with them. The church as well played a massive part in the social life of this region. It was basically the only institution that brought people together, the only collective institution that gave their lives a sort of sense of community. And when the revolution attacked the clergy in 1790, 1791, getting them to sign loyalty oaths, or swear loyalty oaths, to the revolution, people in the Vendee were very upset about it. They said, "Well, who are these people in Paris to tell us and our priests what to do to come and disrupt our way of life?" And this conscription order in 1793 is basically the final straw. And in the first weeks of March 1793, the Vendee

• 32:11Dominic Sandbrook?

  explodes. And attacks on officials and the National Guard escalate into this mass uprising. And you've got, it basically unites all sectors of society. So you've got peasants, you've got priests, you've got landowners. They arm themselves with scythes and pikes. They hide in all these woods and hedgerows. Then they will kind of leap out in this kind of guerrilla insurgency to attack troops sent from Paris to put down the rising. But there's also an element of a kind of religious crusade about it. It reminds me a bit of, I don't know, the pilgrimage of grace, and under Henry VIII or something. You know, the Vendeeans call themselves the Catholic and Royal Army. They wear religious images like the Sacred

• 32:53Dominic Sandbrook?

  Heart on their coats. And their rhetoric is quite moving, I think, quite stirring. "We are free men. We want our priests back. If we must die, let them kill us in our own fields." And all this kind of thing. So the Vendeeans have risen up. In Paris, however, among the radicals who are in charge, they are seen as barbaric and backward. So one newspaper says, "They're an unholy alliance of vindictive lordlings, wild priests, gamekeepers without pity, and fanatical peasants." So this is basically everything the revolution is trying to eradicate, that they cast the Vendeeans as a caricature.

• 33:33Tom Holland?

  You say that. The vindictive peasants is interesting, though, isn't it? Because aristocrats, priests, gamekeepers, you can understand them being enemy of the people. But if the peasantry aren't the people, then I don't really know what is. And there is, I guess, the kind of the emergence of metropolitan radicals feeling impatient with people in the country who are too conservative for their tastes. And that's a theme that will run through revolutions beyond the French Revolution, right?

• 34:06Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah, completely. I mean, Russia, 1920s, 1930s, exactly the same story. And it becomes a war, rather like, actually, the, what, comparison with the Soviet Union. This becomes a campaign of horrific savagery, as we will see. We'll talk about this a little bit in future episodes. Massacres, reprisals, scorched earth campaign. I mean, to jump ahead, this campaign probably kills about a quarter of the population of the Vendee, maybe 200,000 people. And there's a long-running historiographical argument among French historians. Is it genocidal? Is it a kind of proto-genocide? Does that anticipate some of the horrors of the 20th century? You know, it's a very, very impassioned debate. Anyway, so it's March

• 34:50Dominic Sandbrook?

  1793. You've got the economy, you've got the war, you've got the Vendee, the news from the Vendee has come in. Could things be any worse for the Convention and the people running it? Guess what? They could. And they're about to get much worse. Because as they're getting the first reports of the uprising in the Vendee, they're also getting news from the Flanders Battlefront. So in the Low Countries, the French have done quite well. They've been pushing. Their commander is Charles Francois Dumeurier, and Dumeurier used to be the Girondins Foreign Minister. He was one of the great architects of the war. He saw it as a chance to kind of cement his own personal popularity. But he has been

• 35:35Dominic Sandbrook?

  in bad odour recently with the Convention because he has, when he's been conquering bits of what becomes Belgium, he's kind of seen as being soft on the local elites because he wants to kind of get them to cooperate. He doesn't want to drive them away from his army. And then a total disaster. So on the 8th of March, 1793, the Austrians, having been on the back foot, launch a counter-offensive, and they absolutely smashed Dumeurier's army at the Battle of Neuvinden. And Dumeurier is pushed all the way back. He has to withdraw all his troops from Belgium and Holland. And at this point, Dumeurier thinks, "God, this is a disaster." And actually, he thinks, "Part of the reason we're losing this is because there's such chaos in Paris, and these flipping oddballs are running the revolution."

• 36:19Tom Holland?

  He wants to do a sulla.

• 36:21Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah. Or try to do what one of his old army colleagues, Marquis de Lafayette, General Lafayette, had thought of doing. March on Paris, set myself up, basically, as a military dictator, with, restore a bit of order, sort all this chaos out.

• 36:36Tom Holland?

  Knock heads together.

• 36:37Dominic Sandbrook?

  Correct. He says, "It's the army's time now." You know, it's such a classic thing in history. And he goes to his men and says, "Will we march on Paris?" And his men say, "No, actually, we won't. I don't want to. You're the problem, not the people in Paris." And so what Dumeurier does next confirms all the darkest suspicions of people like Marat and Robespierre. He rides to the Austrian lines on the 5th of April, and he hands himself in, along with a load of other senior officers, including the future French king, Louis Philippe. So Dumeurier, the guy who was in charge of France's army, has just gone over to the opposition. And as one volunteer in the army writes to his mother, "Who can we

• 37:21Dominic Sandbrook?

  trust now? This Dumeurier, whom the French Republic regarded as its savior, has thrown off the mask." So he's revealed himself to be a traitor. So you might say, "Well, who could have seen this coming?"

• 37:33Tom Holland?

  Who indeed.

• 37:35Dominic Sandbrook?

  Who indeed. Well, we know who saw this coming. The man who sees a traitor behind every mask, and that is Jean-Paul Marat. Marat had said, two weeks later, "I think Dumeurier is probably a traitor." And Dumeurier has proved him right. And so for Dumeurier's allies in the Girondin faction, this is a catastrophe. In Paris, there are riots by the militants, by the Sainte-Culotte, attacking Girondin newspapers, Girondin printers, and so on. Georges Danton, the earthy kind of Churchill figure.

• 38:04Tom Holland?

  Dominic Sandbrook of the French Revolution.

• 38:06Dominic Sandbrook?

  Thank you. He'd been quite close to Dumeurier. He says, "Come on, enough of this now. The gloves have got to come off. There can be no further truce between the patriots and the cowards." And now there's a very telling moment. So up until now, the deputies in the Convention had immunity from prosecution. But the Convention votes, in the aftermath of Dumeurier's defection, that their immunity can be lifted if they are suspected of plotting with the enemies of liberty, equality, and republican government.

• 38:36Tom Holland?

  And Danton plays a leading role in proposing and pushing that through, doesn't he? And a time will come when he may regret that.

• 38:44Dominic Sandbrook?

  There's, there's a lot of irony in this series. There's an awful lot of dramatic irony. So, Duhemirier has defected, it's kicking off in the Vendee, it's looking all bad with the economy and on the frontiers and everything. There is this widespread sense of apocalyptic national emergency at this point. March, April 1793, an overriding obsession with enemies within, people like Duhemirier who are about to betray us.

• 39:12Tom Holland?

  When you say apocalyptic, I mean, this is still an unbelievably Catholic Christian country, even if atheists are starting to seize the commanding heights of the revolution. And the sense of an apocalypse of sheep and goats being divided up, of good and evil, I think is hugely a part of the climate of the age. They don't think of it in overtly theological terms, but it is fundamentally theological, I think.

• 39:41Dominic Sandbrook?

  When you read the rhetoric, I mean, it's all good and evil, purity and impurity, all of that kind of thing. Absolutely. So, at this moment, March, April 1793, the historian Timothy Tackett says, "This is the major turning point in the coming of the terror." So if you think of the Reign of Terror, the tumbrils, the guillotines, this is really the moment that sets this in motion. So what's behind this is that for four years, people like Marat have been saying there is a giant conspiracy of aristocrats and priests. And they say now, "Well, look, we've been proved right. We know the king and queen were in on it. We know some of our generals were in on it, some of our top politicians. It

• 40:22Dominic Sandbrook?

  is time now to take extreme measures against this conspiracy." And Tackett quotes the Montagnard deputy Lazare Carnot, who goes on to be the great organizer of the army. Carnot says, "At this point, we can never hope for a genuine peace with our enemies, neither with those inside nor those outside the nation. Either we pulverize them or we will be crushed by them. Any weakness will be fatal." And so it's in the next few weeks that they set up what become all the key institutions of the Reign of Terror. There's no blueprint, there's no plan.

• 40:55Tom Holland?

  Yeah, it's ad hoc, isn't it? I mean, important to emphasize that.

• 40:58Dominic Sandbrook?

  They are making stuff up as they go along, but all of these things, they're putting in place, perhaps unwittingly, the pieces of the machine.

• 41:06Tom Holland?

  I mean, I think definitely unwittingly, because as we will see, so many of the people who are involved in setting up these institutions.

• 41:12Dominic Sandbrook?

  End up being devoured by it.

• 41:14Tom Holland?

  Well, it's sat and devouring his children, isn't it?

• 41:16Dominic Sandbrook?

  It is, completely it is. So, to give you some examples, they set up the institution of what are called deputies on mission. So these are people who are sent out from the national convention, basically to impose the will of the central government on provinces by force if necessary. So you're the effect of, you know, you're the equivalent of a member of the House of Representatives or a British MP or something, and you are sent out to god knows where, with maybe with some of the troops, your job is to impose the national order on this remote part of France. There's that. There is, on the 10th of March, a revolutionary tribunal. This is a court that will try people accused of political

• 41:58Dominic Sandbrook?

  crimes. When the result is the death sentence, the death sentence has to be carried out within 24 hours, and there is no right of appeal.

• 42:07Tom Holland?

  Yeah, and that's set up in the Palace of Justice, isn't it, just down from Notre Dame? And in the basement, there are pre-existing cells, the conciergerie. And so the conciergerie will become the great holding pen for people who are arrested by this revolutionary tribunal.

• 42:25Dominic Sandbrook?

  And they know that the revolutionary tribunal with no right of appeal is going to be very, very severe. But they lean into that. Danton says, "Let us be terrible, so the people will not have to be." In other words, what they're saying is, "We cannot afford a return to the anarchy of the prison massacres. We're going to have mobs running through the streets. So basically, we're going to have to do this ourselves, and we are going to have to eliminate all the traitors." They want to export this across the country. So they have surveillance committees in every commune in the country. The surveillance committees will make lists of all the foreigners. They will also compile a register of all adult citizens to mark off when people have done their civic duty, and they will encourage

• 43:06Dominic Sandbrook?

  people to report all counter-revolutionary activity, although of course, that's not really very tightly defined. So if you fancy, if you fancy your neighbor's pig or something and you want to denounce him, this is your opportunity. And the most famous of these institutions are the 6th of April 1793, the Committee of Public Safety. And this has been set up to handle the different military emergencies. It is the key driver of the Reign of Terror. It wasn't actually conceived that way. It was actually proposed ironically by a Girondins called Isna. You would know this better than anyone. It was modeled on the temporary dictatorships of ancient Rome. So am I right in saying that when Rome was

• 43:49Dominic Sandbrook?

  facing an existential threat, you'd appoint Cincinnatus or somebody from his plough, and he would take over as a dictator?

• 43:56Tom Holland?

  Yeah. For six months, it's short, it's a self-confined period of time. That's what's crucial. But the dictator has complete control of the state to end a state of emergency.

• 44:07Dominic Sandbrook?

  So, the Committee of Public Safety is modeled on this. Its powers are renewed every month. So every month, the convention can choose whether or not to give it another lease of life. It always does. It has nine members at first, and its meetings are secret. And the person that dominates it initially is Danton. And Danton, actually, at this point, is not on the more militant wing of the Montagnard faction. He is much more pragmatic. So in the first three months of the committee's existence, Danton is saying, "Let's have a look and see if we can make a deal with some of our enemies, the Prussians, for example."

• 44:46Tom Holland?

  Or the Austrians, right? I mean, it's often said that he has the channels of communication to the Austrians.

• 44:51Dominic Sandbrook?

  And not only that, but making a deal with some of the provinces. So this is anathema to some of the revolutionists. But Danton is like, "Do we need to drive everybody against us? You know, if people aren't in actual revolt already, we can talk to them as we would to the Austrians or to the Prussians. We don't need to fight everybody all at once." So he's trying to find pragmatic solutions. While Danton is doing that, though, so remember, we're still in April or so 1793, the factional feud between the Girondins and the Montagnards is reaching an absolute peak, a sort of frenzy. And our friend Marat is in the thick of

• 45:32Dominic Sandbrook?

  it. He is laying into the Girondins. He says they are the criminal accomplices of royalty who every day seek to kindle the flames of civil war. And the Girondins, of course, they're on the back foot now, now their mate Duhemirier has defected.

• 45:47Tom Holland?

  Well, not just mate, one of their shining stars.

• 45:50Dominic Sandbrook?

  Their ex-foreign minister.

• 45:51Tom Holland?

  Yeah.

• 45:52Dominic Sandbrook?

  We said about how they'd scrapped the rule on deputies having immunity from prosecution. The Girondins think, "We need to kind of strike back, we need to assert ourselves." And they decide they would use this rule change against the person they hate more than any other, which is Marat. And on the 14th of April, when a lot of these deputies have gone away from Paris to go on mission to the provinces to impose the new order, the Girondins move an indictment. They charge Marat with inciting and uprising against the convention, and they're able to get it through because so many deputies are away. And so now, Marat is effectively facing, it's like an impeachment trial, he's facing a formal trial in front of the revolutionary tribunal. And his first instinct is to go

• 46:37Dominic Sandbrook?

  into hiding. But after three days of hiding, he thinks to himself, it becomes clear to him, the mood on the streets of Paris is very much in his favor. And so he hands himself into the police. He says, "Fine, bring it on. I'll face the trial." And his trial is held at the Palais de Justice on the 24th of April, and for the Girondins, it's a total fiasco. The prosecutor, who's a guy called Fouquier-Tinville, we will hear more about him in future episodes, he's a Montagnard supporter, and he lets Marat basically hold court, you know, speak at length, rant and rave. Marat says, "You know, I did say things against the convention, but my remarks have been taken out of context. I'm the people's friend. I want nothing more than the good of the nation, blah de blah de blah." The

• 47:21Dominic Sandbrook?

  courtroom is full of his supporters, the jury, 10 people in the jury, and it takes them a few hours, and they acquit him. They say, "This bloke Marat is brilliant. Why have you accused him?" And he is chaired out of the courtroom, you know, on people's shoulders. He is crowned with roses, and is carried back into the convention by about 800 people, chanting, "Vive la République, vive Marat!" So for Marat, this is actually, you know, it was a dark hour, but it has turned into a stunning success. His star has never been higher. Marat is on top of the world. But for the Girondins, this has been an absolute humiliation. And they've got a lot of enemies in the radical clubs, on the streets, in

• 48:05Dominic Sandbrook?

  the Paris commune, the kind of city government, who are itching to get at them. They can sense the Girondins' weakness, and then the next few days, they sharpen their knives to strike.

• 48:16Tom Holland?

  Although, of course, Dominic, they are not the only people who are sharpening a knife. And in the second half, we will meet someone else who's sharpening a knife, and that is Charlotte Corday. But before that, we will be finding out what this clash with the Girondins means for Jean-Paul Marat. See you after the break.

• 48:44Tom Holland?

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• 51:07Tom Holland?

  Hello, everyone, and welcome back to The Rest is History, where it is the spring of 1793. France is at war. The countryside is in rebellion. And the rivalry between the Girondins and the Montagnards, the rival factions in the National Convention, is reaching fever pitch. So Dominic, we heard before the break that the Girondins tried to convict Marat at the Revolutionary Tribunal and comprehensively failed. So they've shot their bolt. What now?

• 51:37Dominic Sandbrook?

  The mood in the capital is now incredibly, incredibly febrile. So the assinats, the paper money, is losing its value all the time. The bread prices are going up. On the 1st of May, so not long after Marat's acquittal, a load of working-class women invade the convention.

• 51:54Tom Holland?

  Is this the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women?

• 52:00Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah, I think it is. I mean, there's loads of these women's radical clubs now that will end up being stamped out, but they're thriving at this point in 1793. And female activism, a big part of the revolutionary story. And these women say, you know, you're wasting a lot of time when you could actually be fixing grain prices, helping the poor. When are you going to take action? The Girondins are dead against this because the Girondins, as you said, they're kind of free marketeers, really. And they say, you know, it's insane to fix prices. That will just make things worse. But they're outvoted in the convention, another sign that they're losing their grip. In the streets of Paris, of course, the Girondins' reputation is at an all-time low. And people are making lists already of saying,

• 52:43Dominic Sandbrook?

  you know, which are the deputies that we want kicked out of the convention? And on the 26th of May, the sanglots, the militants on the streets, get the green light from the only person who really rivals Marat as their great darling. And this is the man who will, of course, become the personification of the Reign of Terror, and that is Maximilien Robespierre. And Robespierre goes to one of the radical clubs, the Jacobin Club, and he gives a speech. And he says, "When good faith and decency are trampled underfoot, the people must rise in insurrection." So it's the speech of a deputy encouraging an insurrection against his own legislature, a common thing, actually, in the French Revolution. So that is the signal they've been waiting for.

• 53:27Dominic Sandbrook?

  And four nights later, in the early hours of the 31st of May, 1793, it's the dead of night, and you hear the Toxine, the great bell of Notre Dame, ringing out across Paris. This is the signal.

• 53:40Tom Holland?

  I mean, I think that if there is a lesson in French history, it is that when you hear a Toxine ringing out over Paris, you're probably better go and hide in a cellar.

• 53:48Dominic Sandbrook?

  Completely. Just get rid of the bells. I mean, that's what I did then.

• 53:53Dominic Sandbrook?

  Anyway, the Toxine summons out the sanglots. They install their own man, who's a bloke called François Enrio, the new head of the National Guard in the capital. They issue a proclamation saying, "Paris is in a state, a formal state of insurrection." They close the city gates. They fire warning cannons across the River Seine, and they surround the convention. The convention has now moved from the riding school to the old court theatre at the Tuileries Palace. And for the next two days, the sanglots surround, effectively lay siege to the National Convention. So inside are all the deputies, including lots of the Girondins leaders. And this stalemate lasts for two days. And then on the 2nd of June, it reaches a climax.

• 54:38Dominic Sandbrook?

  So you now have thousands of National Guardsmen with fixed bayonets surrounding the National Convention and a crowd of about 50,000 people. And Enrio, the guy who's taken over as head of the National Guard, sends in an ultimatum. He says, "We want the surrender of 22 Girondins members." And the president of the convention says, "No, we're not going to give up our colleagues." And Enrio sends a reply. The messenger is told, "Tell your effing president that he and his assembly can go [bleep] themselves. And if within one hour the 22 are not delivered, we will blow them all up." So the president of the convention decides he's going to try and lead all the deputies out. But they try to walk outside in a big group,

• 55:23Dominic Sandbrook?

  and they're blocked by these blokes, armed cavalrymen. And Enrio actually brings up his cannons at that point, and he shouts very loudly, sort of performatively, "To arms, cannoneers, to your guns!" The deputies, perhaps not surprisingly, will go back, troop back inside. Marat, by the way, is there, and he's screaming at them, "Hand over the traitors! Give them what they want, you know, give them the traitors!" And showing the backbone and courage for which politicians have always been renowned. They decide they will actually hand over all the traitors. So they vote in favour of a Montagnard motion to place 29 Girondins members under suspension and house arrest.

• 56:05Dominic Sandbrook?

  And it was later said that Marat had personally chosen some of the, you know, he'd added some of the 29 names to the list. Impossible to say whether this is true or not, by the way. But it was widely believed by his critics. And actually, one of the names on the list is that bloke Pierre Vernieu, the guy who had made the speech about Saturn devouring his children. And he is the only one of them. You know, he's the only one who really reacts in a memorable way because once the motion goes through, he stands and he says, "Shall I offer you a glass of blood to slake your thirst?"

• 56:46Tom Holland?

  That is memorable.

• 56:47Dominic Sandbrook?

  So quite a good comeback from him.

• 56:49Tom Holland?

  Also, just to say that a lot of the most prominent Girondins are not in the convention because they're out in the provinces. And one of the key figures is Monsieur Roland, who is the husband of Madame Roland, the salonista, and who'd been a minister under Louis XVI. So he is at liberty at this point.

• 57:08Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah, we'll come back to him, won't we, in a future episode? And indeed, to Madame Roland. So just to pause here, this coup, the surrender of the Girondins. This is a seismic moment, really, in the history of the revolution. So not for the last time in this story, you have people who only a year or two before were very close, close colleagues, members of the same clubs.

• 57:31Dominic Sandbrook?

  Basically giving up their friends, their old friends now enemies to the fury of the mob. Of course, for Marat, who didn't have any friends, this is a brilliant moment. So only a few weeks ago, his Gironde enemies were trying to bring him down. And now they have been purged and he and his allies are in the ascendant. And as we've described, the institutional machinery for the terror is already in place. So he's very close to getting what he wants. But the interesting thing about Marat is that at this point, he vanishes. He disappears from the convention and he's not seen in public. Now, why? It's because of his skin.

• 58:13Dominic Sandbrook?

  So not surprisingly, he's been quite stressed in the last few weeks. His skin has broken out, he's covered in kind of separating sores and blisters. What does his wife make of this? She thinks it's gorgeous, she loves it. You see, I reckon she'd probably have said, it's a sign that he is a martyr for the revolution. It's a sign that he's suffering and he's not one of these polished fops, you know, manicured kind of dandies. He's a real man, a real man has

• 58:40Tom Holland?

  Has massive bleeding sores all over himself.

• 58:43Dominic Sandbrook?

  Correct, exactly. So Marat is holed up in his apartment, his house in the rue des Coudeliers. And he's in his lukewarm bath with full of kaolin solution, apparently very good for you. And he's working on his newspaper on a kind of plank across the bathtub. So he's, he's in his house, in his bath, his influence though is very great. The Montagnards are now in charge of the government, great. However, in the big provincial cities, where of course the administrations were much more sympathetic to the Gironde, the news of this, effectively this coup provokes a horrified reaction. The most famous example is in Lyon, in the second city of France, famous for silk weaving.

• 59:28Dominic Sandbrook?

  The Montagnards always said, oh, Lyon rose up against us because of a royalist conspiracy. This is just not true. In Lyon, Lyon turns against the revolution. And the people who, who lead the uprising in Lyon are the artisans and shopkeepers and sort of middling people who had normally been the bedrock of the revolution. And they think it's gone too far. They've been provoked by local extremists who've tried to set up their own kind of tribunals and things and rig elections and stuff. And this escalates into a full scale rebellion against what the people in Lyon see as the tyranny of the Paris radicals. So it ends, well, I mean, we'll have a lot more about Lyon. It basically ends horribly with siege, with lots of guillotining, lots of shooting and all of this. So the result of this, right, we're in the summer of 1793.

• 1:00:15Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yet another ingredient. So the war on the frontiers, the economic meltdown, the revolt in the Vendee, and now what historians call a federalist uprising in lots of provincial cities, so Lyon, Marseille, Bordeaux and so on, led by the mercantile middle classes who had once been, you know, the motor of the revolution.

• 1:00:35Tom Holland?

  Hmm. Oh, I've been riding on a crocodile and now the crocodile is trying to eat me. Whoever would have thought it?

• 1:00:40Dominic Sandbrook?

  Exactly, exactly. Now, one of these places is a place in Normandy called Caen. So Caen, even before the coup, had turned against the convention. And actually, for that reason, this is where some of the Gironde deputies had fled, even before they could be arrested. So there's about 20 of them in Caen, Gironde deputies by the middle of June 1793. And they are saying, Paris has been taken over by nutcases and brigands. We should raise an army, march on the capital, kick out these madmen. And on the 7th of July, the Gironde organised a parade through the centre of Caen. 2,500 volunteers marching with a military band.

• 1:01:25Dominic Sandbrook?

  And imagine the scene, handsome town, the parade marching past with a band. And you know, the camera sort of pans upwards and you see people watching on the balconies. And it focuses in on one person on the balcony in particular. And this is a very pretty young woman, very short actually, five foot one.

• 1:01:43Tom Holland?

  So like Marat.

• 1:01:44Dominic Sandbrook?

  She's a bit more becoming exactly than Marat. And her name is Charlotte Corday. So Charlotte Corday, who's watching this parade, she's 24 years old. And she comes from a kind of minor aristocratic family in rural Normandy. She's actually descended from the 17th century playwright Pierre Cornet, who wrote all these very incredibly boring plays that I had to study years ago about duty and honour and all about the Romans.

• 1:02:13Tom Holland?

  Classical.

• 1:02:13Dominic Sandbrook?

  Classical plays, exactly. And Charlotte Corday, she's not an ultra reactionary by any means. She's convent schooled and she had grown up reading Plutarch, Voltaire, Rousseau, all the same books.

• 1:02:28Tom Holland?

  All the lads.

• 1:02:29Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah, but all the same books that the revolutionaries read. And at first she liked the revolution, she was a Gironde. She became horrified by the lurch towards violence. She was shocked when a local priest who had given the last rites to her mother was kind of stripped of his living and then he was hunted down in the woods and guillotined. And this wasn't a religious thing from Charlotte. She doesn't seem to have been particularly pious. It was actually a personal thing, you know, he was close to the family, she was horrified by what happened to him. Anyway, the Gironde have turned up in Caen, they're making all these speeches in the town. They've got their headquarters right in the centre. She's very impressed, she loves the Gironde. And she thinks, I'd love to strike a blow for their cause.

• 1:03:14Dominic Sandbrook?

  She's an idealistic young woman. And the man she decides will bear the brunt of this blow is the man who has dominated today's story. He is Jean Paul Marat. Now, we've already talked about how Marat is a massive hate figure for the Gironde and he's particularly a hate figure in Caen. Because when he heard that Caen had turned against Paris, he said to the convention, we should send in the sans-coulottes with pitchforks, scythes, pikes, guns and sabres and crush them, meaning the people in Caen, without mercy.

• 1:03:46Dominic Sandbrook?

  So in the streets of Caen, there have been attacks on Marat circulating pamphlets saying what a dog he is. So in Simon Sharma's book Citizens, he quotes one example. Let Marat's head fall and the Republic is saved. Purge France of this man of blood. Marat sees the public safety only in a river of blood. Well then, his own must flow, for his head must fall to save 200,000 others.

• 1:04:09Tom Holland?

  And I suppose the thing that is troubling for the Gironde is that the rhetoric of that exactly echoes the rhetoric that had been used in the trial of Louis XVI to justify his execution. This idea that there is someone, you kill him and then you, you, you save the revolution. Very, very tempting, but it, there's a slight quality of the royalist rhetoric about it.

• 1:04:35Dominic Sandbrook?

  There maybe is, but having said all that, I think if you're a Gironde at this point, you think, yeah, let's just kill him.

• 1:04:40Tom Holland?

  Yeah, for sure, but retrospectively, it's, it's not going to look good.

• 1:04:43Dominic Sandbrook?

  No, I suppose not. I'll tell you who it looks good to, it looks good to Charlotte Corday. Because as we said, she's a descendant of Cornet and all his plays about heroism and sacrifice. And she has read her Plutarch. So she's read all about people assassinating other people, you know, in the name of the Republic and so on. And she thinks, well, why not me? I could be a patriotic heroine, I could, I could give my life for my country. And she decides that she will. And on the 9th of July, it's a very hot day, she writes a note to her father and she says, Daddy, I'm going to England. Papa, je vais en Angleterre. And then she gets on the coach for Paris and she's got her copy of Plutarch with her. You know, you can imagine her

• 1:05:24Tom Holland?

  Earnestly reading about Brutus.

• 1:05:26Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah, so the coach journey from Caen to Paris takes two days. And she arrives about midday on the 11th of July. And she takes a room at the Hôtel de la Providence, which is very popular with visitors from Normandy. And her original plan was, you know, she could go as a spectator to the convention, so many people did. She could confront Marat before the representatives of the nation and strike her blow there. But she asks around and people say, well, Marat hasn't been to the convention for weeks, he's vanished. No, you know, he's, he's been in his bath. However, the good news for her, people say, Marat still, you can still go and see him. Basically, if you need his help or you're coming to make a denunciation of an enemy of the revolution, he will see you. I mean, he'll be in the bath, but he'll see you.

• 1:06:10Dominic Sandbrook?

  So Friday, the 12th of July. Charlotte drafts a manifesto explaining exactly why she's doing what she's doing. She calls on the people of France to wake up. She says, I'm, I'm here to rouse you against this monster. I want to make the mountain, the Montagnards tremble. I want to send a message that we won't stand for this sort of bloodshed for this extremism. And I will be judged by posterity. My actions will be seen as legal because such a man is outside the law. And she also writes a note to Marat saying, I'd like to come and see you. And she says, I'm a massive patriot, I've come from Caen, I've got secret information, I want to do France a service. Can I come and see you?

• 1:06:56Dominic Sandbrook?

  She gets no reply, the day goes by.

• 1:07:00Dominic Sandbrook?

  The next day, the 13th of July, is a Saturday. And Paris, there are always loads of people coming at the weekends into Paris from the suburbs and the villages. But they're expecting more people than usual because tomorrow, of course, is the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille, the 14th of July. The authorities have just organised a big festival. They're launching yet another new constitution and they're going to have a big festival for it. The city has been decorated with red, white and blue, you know, the tricolore colours. It's going to be a really hot day, so it's sort of, the temperature is rising. People have started gathering early. There are going to be executions.

• 1:07:41Dominic Sandbrook?

  There are nine people from Orleans who had attacked deputies on mission and they're going to be guillotined. So the crowds are very excited. It's going to be a brilliant day, basically, great day's entertainment.

• 1:07:52Dominic Sandbrook?

  At about eight o'clock in the morning, Charlotte Corday leaves her hotel and she walks to the arcades of the Palais Royal, lots of shops, stalls. She buys a newspaper and the newspaper tells her that the convention are likely to ask for death sentences for the imprisoned Gironde deputies. She also buys a new hat. She was wearing a white bonnet, which was a characteristic dress of Normandy. She buys a black Parisian hat with green ribbons and she goes into a shop called Le Cutilier Bada, a sort of cutlery shop, and she buys a black handled kitchen knife with a big blade, blade about 15 centimetres long. Between about 11.30 and 12, sometime at that point, she arrives by a cab at Marat's

• 1:08:37Dominic Sandbrook?

  house in the Rue des Coudeliers. She doesn't though have an appointment and Marat's sister-in-law is there and Marat's sister-in-law says, he's too ill to have any visitors today, I'll have to come back another day. So Charlotte goes back to her hotel and she writes a second letter and she says, I've come all this way from Caen, I actually have vital information about the security of the Republic. Furthermore, I am being persecuted in the cause of liberty. I am unhappy. That should be enough to give me the right to your protection. So she's written this letter. The afternoon goes by and that evening at about half past six, she takes another cab to the Rue des Coudeliers and she's got her letter and she's got the knife.

• 1:09:23Dominic Sandbrook?

  And as she arrives, she sees that the door to Marat's apartment is open and the reason is that a delivery man is taking in the newspapers and fresh bread, baguettes surely.

• 1:09:34Dominic Sandbrook?

  And Charlotte starts to go upstairs and on the stairs, she's intercepted by Marat's wife, Simone.

• 1:09:39Tom Holland?

  I mean, you can understand why. I mean, if you find, you know, you're married to someone and there's a woman creeping up towards the bathroom where your husband is lying naked, I think you'd feel justified.

• 1:09:51Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah, but Marat often has visitors, I think, doesn't he? I mean.

• 1:09:54Tom Holland?

  I suppose it depends how beautiful the young Charlotte is.

• 1:09:57Dominic Sandbrook?

  Charlotte, very beautiful, of course. I think we've established that. So Simone says, what are you doing? You know, who let you in? Why are you coming upstairs? And Charlotte, she doesn't say, she shouts. She says, I've got the names of Gironde and traitors. Because she knows, she wants Marat to hear. And Marat can hear the confusion from his bath and he says, let her in, let her in, you know? She goes into his bathroom. This has always puzzled me. I'm assuming he's mostly not visible under the, you know, the lip of the bath and the surface of the water.

• 1:10:29Tom Holland?

  Super rating genitals.

• 1:10:32Dominic Sandbrook?

  It can't be a very attractive sight. Anyway, he's in the bath, he's tied a wet cloth around his head, like a sort of turban, and he's working on some paperwork on this plank across the bath. And he says, you know, sit down, my dear. And Charlotte sits down and she starts to tell him what's going on in Caen. She says, well, I've turned up, they're giving speeches, all this. And Simone, his wife, is a bit suspicious of all this, unsurprisingly, and she stays there as well, listening. So they're chatting for about 10 minutes and then 10 minutes in, Marat says to Simone, can you go and get me some more kaolin solution for my bath water? I don't know why this is such a great thing, but apparently it is.

• 1:11:15Dominic Sandbrook?

  And Simone goes out to get it and at this point, Marat says, okay, let's cut to the chase. Give me the names of all the Gironde and Caen and their supporters. And Charlotte begins to recite the names of 18 people. And when she's got to the end, Marat says, good, in a few days I will have them all guillotined.

• 1:11:33Tom Holland?

  He's such a fun guy.

• 1:11:35Dominic Sandbrook?

  He's such a funster. Well, as is Charlotte, because at this point, she gets to her feet from the chair, she reaches into her dress, she pulls out this kitchen knife and she plunges it deep into Marat's chest. And Marat shrieks out, he howls out, à moi, ma chère amie, to me, my dear friend, meaning to his wife. But those are the last words he ever says. Immediately he sinks back into the water and there's blood pouring out of his chest. And Simone rushes back in with other people from the household. There's a man called Laurent Ba, who works on Marat's paper. And very ungallantly, I think, he sees the opportunity to grab Charlotte Corday by the

• 1:12:17Dominic Sandbrook?

  breasts and pushes her down onto the ground and holds her down while groping her, which I think is poor from him. And at this point, either Simone or her sister, we don't know which, starts basically punching Charlotte in the face, pummeling her. But the neighbours then all rush in because they've heard the screaming and then the police rush in and basically drag them off Charlotte. The neighbours try to lift Marat from the tub to staunch the bleeding, but it's no good. The knife has gone through an artery, it's pierced his lung and his heart. He probably died within seconds, basically, just after he shouted out. He probably died moments later.

• 1:12:55Dominic Sandbrook?

  Now we'll come back to Marat. First of all, Charlotte Corday.

• 1:12:59Dominic Sandbrook?

  The police, as I said, were there almost straight away. She's caught red-handed. She's interrogated straight away and by an extraordinary coincidence, one of the people who interrogated her is a guy called Jean Baptiste Drouet. And people who listen to one of our earlier French Revolution series will remember, Drouet was the postmaster who had spotted Louis XVI during the royal family's flight to Varennes. So he's now in Paris and he's on hand to interrogate her. And Charlotte is completely open. I mean, it's not like she can possibly deny doing it. She says, yeah, I did it. I came to Paris to kill Marat. And they're like, well, who put you up to this? And from the beginning, she says, I acted alone. Now meanwhile, whilst she's saying all this, there's this huge crowd gathering, baying

• 1:13:44Dominic Sandbrook?

  for blood. And, you know, they really would have lynched Charlotte on the spot had the police not been there. One woman says, is shouting, I would like to rip her apart and eat her, bit by bit. And Drouet says, no, no, no, no, no. Don't touch her because if you touch her, we will lose the links in the plot, which is an important point.

• 1:14:08Tom Holland?

  So they don't want a Jack Ruby style intervention.

• 1:14:11Dominic Sandbrook?

  They don't. And so she's taken to the Aube Prison. The Aube Prison is where the September massacres of the prison inmates had begun. And she's questioned three times by officials of the Revolutionary Tribunal. They question her again and again, and it's always about this issue of the links in the plot. And this is because they are absolutely convinced that she must be part of a Gironde conspiracy.

• 1:14:33Tom Holland?

  Is that because she's a woman, a young woman?

• 1:14:35Dominic Sandbrook?

  I think that's part of it, unquestionably. There's no doubt that they think that a mere woman cannot have acted alone. It's just not possible for a woman to take the initiative in this way and to be so bold.

• 1:14:49Tom Holland?

  I suppose also they're massively into conspiracy theories, aren't they? So it's like Kennedy's assassination, you know, you can't have a lone actor. It's got to be some sinister conspiracy behind it.

• 1:14:59Dominic Sandbrook?

  That, but even more so, absolutely embedded in the political imagination of Paris in 1793 is the notion of a foreign conspiracy and a conspiracy involving people, enemies within as well as without. So when something like this happens, it must be part of the conspiracy in which foreigners, aristocrats, priests and Gironde are all implicated. There's a really telling exchange with a guy called Montagny, who is the president of the Revolutionary Tribunal. And he says to her, well, who told you to do this? And she says, well, nobody. I alone conceived the plan and executed it. And he says, that's just not possible because you are telling us that you think Marat is the cause of all the evil in France, but Marat is the man who has never ceased from unmasking traitors and conspirators.

• 1:15:44Dominic Sandbrook?

  So someone must have been lying to you about Marat and who was that person? And she says to this guy, you're mad. It is only in Paris that people have eyes for Marat. In the other departments, he is regarded as a monster. But of course, the Revolutionary Tribunal can't get their heads around that. The failure of political imagination is such, they cannot conceive that in the other parts of France, people would think of Marat as a bad man. And they thought, well, it must be a conspiracy that's brainwashed this girl. Georges Couteau and Montagny, I know, we'll be talking about him next time. He said, it has been mathematically demonstrated that this monster to whom nature has given the form of a woman was sent by the conspirators of Caen.

• 1:16:25Tom Holland?

  Mathematically proved.

• 1:16:27Dominic Sandbrook?

  I want to see that equation. So anyway, Charlotte's trial is on the 17th of July. The trial was six hours, the verdict to foregone conclusion. And it's a very sort of moving moment, actually. They had gone through all her letters to try to find evidence of this conspiracy. And one of the letters they read out was a letter to her father. Forgive me, dear papa, for having disposed my existence without your permission. I have avenged many innocent victims. I prevented many other disasters. One day, the people will lose their illusions and rejoice at being delivered from a tyrant. Anyway, she's condemned to the guillotine. The sentence is going to be carried out immediately, as is the way with the revolutionary tribunal. But she actually has a last request.

• 1:17:10Dominic Sandbrook?

  She's seen an officer of the National Guard, a man called Hauer, sketching her during the trial. And she says, could he paint my picture before I have my head cut off? And permission is given. And this guy, Hauer, came to her cell and painted her portrait before she was executed. So this is the portrait that you see of her when you Google her. And when the executioner, Saint-San, came to cut her hair before her death, she cut off one of the locks herself and she gave it to this guy, Howard. She said, take this as a souvenir of a poor dying woman. And then she was loaded into the car at the Tunbril, taken to the guillotine at the Plastique Rive. And there's a huge crowd there to watch her die. Everybody said she died really well, you know, composed, calm.

• 1:17:54Dominic Sandbrook?

  She'd known this was coming when the moment she got on the coach to Paris, she had known this would happen. People said, you know, her face was so calm that one would have said she was a statue. Not everybody dies well in the French Revolution, but she dies really well.

• 1:18:08Tom Holland?

  Do you know this fantastic story that's told about what happens when her head drops into the basket? And the executioner goes to pick it up. And he supposedly holds it up to the crowd and gives the cheeks, her cheeks, a slap. Because he's a Marat enthusiast. And it's, it's said that she blushed.

• 1:18:27Dominic Sandbrook?

  Oh.

• 1:18:28Tom Holland?

  So still feeling, even though her head's been chopped off.

• 1:18:32Dominic Sandbrook?

  She's still demure.

• 1:18:33Tom Holland?

  Still demure.

• 1:18:34Dominic Sandbrook?

  Now, so that's Charlotte Corday. What about Marat? So Marat, in death even more than life, becomes this great symbol of revolutionary militancy. He becomes a martyr for a sacred cause. And I use those words very deliberately. Within hours of his death, someone posted a poem on the door of his house. People, Marat is dead, the lover of the fatherland, your friend, your succor, the hope of the afflicted, has fallen beneath the blows of the withered horde. Weep, but remember that he must be avenged.

• 1:19:05Tom Holland?

  I feel it's always a bad sign in a revolution when people start writing poetry.

• 1:19:09Dominic Sandbrook?

  Completely. I couldn't agree with you more. I mean, there's a lot of artistic reaction, of course, to Marat's death. So the man they turn to is the artist Jacques-Louis David, who is a Montagnard, who's the most famous, the most celebrated and influential painter in France.

• 1:19:26Tom Holland?

  Well, Dominic, we will be hearing about him in this week's bonus with Laura Cumming. And she'll be looking at David's career more generally because he is a remarkable figure. And he's been kind of hovering on in the background of so much of the episodes that we've been doing on the French Revolution. And so we're putting the camera on him, the focus on him.

• 1:19:44Dominic Sandbrook?

  How can I hear that? Because I'd love to hear it.

• 1:19:46Tom Holland?

  You could join this thing called the Rest is History Club. And apparently there's a website, therestishistory.com. And you just go there and sign up. And I gather there's a whole range of supplementary benefits as well.

• 1:20:00Dominic Sandbrook?

  I do like a supplementary benefit, to be fair. So I'll probably do that. I'll do that straight after doing this, actually. All right, so David, David organised the funeral. And David wanted to turn it into this great political tableau, a sort of Roman public spectacle. And his plan was, he said, I'm going to embalm Marat. And we will exhibit him in the Caudillier convent, former convent, as a sort of classical martyr. So we'll give him a crown of oak leaves. He'll, we'll design a Roman style bed on which he will recline. His pen will be in hand and we'll pin up his writings around there. Everyone says, oh, this is absolutely brilliant. Can't wait. Actually, doing this is a nightmare. Marat, as soon as they get hold of the body, David says, oh, Jesus.

• 1:20:44Dominic Sandbrook?

  Because basically it's covered in those sores, in blisters and separating pus and sores. So they have to make him up to disguise his skin. Then when they prop him up on the, on the bed, Marat is obviously dead. He's a corpse. And his tongue is lolling out madly from his mouth. So they have to like cut his tongue, cut it up and stuff, just hold it in place. They sew up his wound in his chest that started to gape and to sort of reek. So they have to sew that up. Now, there are also some claims, I don't know how true this is actually, that his arm had become dislocated in all the sort of tuings and throwings.

• 1:21:26Dominic Sandbrook?

  So they decide to just take his arm off completely. And sew on somebody else's arm, an arm from another body. Like Frankenstein's monster.

• 1:21:37Tom Holland?

  It'd be a twist if it was Charlotte Corday's arm.

• 1:21:40Dominic Sandbrook?

  That is a massive twist with the knife, with the knife. Yeah. They sewed on this arm, but when they came back the next day, the arm had fallen off. And they kept having to sew it back on. So they do that. Now, that's not even the biggest thing. The biggest thing is that I'd mentioned multiple times deliberately, and people may not, may have wondered why, that it was very hot. And Marat's corpse has begun to rot in the heat. So there's a terrible stench. And they're having to spray Marat's body and indeed the surrounding room with perfume and vinegar the whole time. But the stench is so disgusting that after a day and a half, they give up. And they say, we're just going to have to have the funeral now. We're going to give up on this.

• 1:22:24Dominic Sandbrook?

  So they have the funeral, they have a torchlit procession. There's loads of maidens in white robes. They've taken out his heart and they have it in an urn. One of the members of the club gives this massive rant and he lies down in front, prostrates himself in front of the urn. And he says, I mean, Tom, this is such Tom Holland bingo. He says, oh, heart of Marat, sacré cœur. Like Jesus, Marat loved the people ardently. Like Jesus, Marat detested nobles, priests, the rich, the scoundrels. Like Jesus, he led a poor and frugal life. Their Jesus was but a false prophet. But Marat is a god. Long live the heart of Marat.

• 1:23:04Tom Holland?

  I mean, that is dominion bingo. And you know, they suspend that urn with that, with the heart of Marat from the ceiling of the Caudillier Club. And the Caudillier Club was a Franciscan convent. So I mean, the kind of the Christian undertoes to the French Revolution. When you look for them, you see them everywhere.

• 1:23:26Dominic Sandbrook?

  I mean, they are everywhere. I mean, they have relics, don't they? They have Marat relics. So you can buy all sorts of locks of his hair. You can buy merch, you can buy plates, you can buy little obelisks of Marat. Women go and have the special Marat haircuts, which is insane because Marat was such an unattractive person. They renamed towns after him. So Montmartre was renamed Montmarat. Le Havre, the town of Le Havre was renamed Le Havre-Marat. I think the French should lean back into this, actually. I think visiting Montmarat, Montmartre is quite an annoying place with all sorts of people, caricature artists and things. I think it was Montmarat and it was for Marat impersonators.

• 1:24:11Tom Holland?

  Sitting in baths.

• 1:24:12Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah. Mime artists performing the death of Marat. I'd definitely go to see that. So Marat is dead and now the descent into the terror becomes unstoppable. Because of course, if you are on the radical wing of the revolution, if you have this conspiratorial mindset, you say, look, this is it now. This is the final proof. We had the king and queen running away. We had the revelation that the king and queen were kind of plotting against us and the revolution. We had General Dumouriez defecting to the Austrians. Now, this, this proves basically no one can be trusted. Any man or woman in the street that you pass could be part of the conspiracy of walking around with a kitchen knife,

• 1:24:57Dominic Sandbrook?

  you know, to stab a patriot. So in the next few days, the Gironde deputies who haven't fled the city are taken from house arrest and taken formally into prison. And everybody know this isn't going to end well for them. However, the national emergency is far from over. So the Vendée is in flames, Lyon's in revolt, the poor haven't got any bread, the Royal Navy. So finally, Tom, someone in this story that we can really root for. The Royal Navy are blockading France's ports and the Austrians and the Prussians are advancing in the east. So the question now is, who on earth is going to save the Republic? Now, a year earlier, France had been in a mess and they had looked at Danton. But Danton is distracted. His wife had just died.

• 1:25:42Dominic Sandbrook?

  He's married again. He's married a 17 year old. He's taken this child bride back to his native Champagne and he's been out of town. Also, Danton's not quite in step with the new mood. He's a little bit too worldly, a bit too pragmatic, a bit too keen on deals and compromises.

• 1:26:02Tom Holland?

  Well, he's turned into a centrist dad, hasn't he? Relative to the, the more radical elements of the Jacobin club.

• 1:26:07Dominic Sandbrook?

  Yeah, he has. He doesn't have the, the icy, pitiless clarity that the Montagnards are looking for. So actually, while he's away, they vote him off the Committee of Public Safety. Danton's a kind of busted flush. So the question is, who is going to replace him? And the answer comes 17 days later, when a new member joins the Committee of Public Safety. And this man will become the embodiment of the reign of terror. And this man is of course, Maximilien Robespierre.

• 1:26:40Tom Holland?

  So next time we will have a deep dive into his life, his character. Terror will become the order of the day. The carts will start rattling towards the guillotine in escalating numbers. And France will become ever more soaked in blood. And after that episode, we have another four epic episodes. One on the execution of Marie Antoinette, one on the fall of Danton, one on the attack on Christianity, and one on the fall of Robespierre himself. And club members can hear all of them now. And to join them, just to reiterate, therestishistory.com.

• 1:27:22Tom Holland?

  And you can also hear Laura Cumming talking about the, the painting, David's painting, The Death of Marat. And if you sign up at therestishistory.com, you will also be able to get our super sore away revolutionary newsletter absolutely free. But for now, au revoir.

• 1:27:38Dominic Sandbrook?

  Au revoir.

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  This episode is brought to you by EA Sports FC27. Welcome to the world's game. FC27 is introducing The Grounds, where the streets meet the stadium. Connect with friends, go pro, and express yourself, on or off the pitch. Play FC27 with the ultimate edition September 18th. Learn more at EA.com. Rated E for everyone, includes in-game purchases including random items. The Grounds is only available on PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X, and S, PC, and Nintendo Switch 2 versions.